Operant conditioning

Question 1

Define operant conditioning.

Answer 1

A learning process in which the strength of a behaviour is modified by the consequences following the behaviour. This approach regards observable stimulus-response behaviours. Behaviours followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated, while those followed by an unpleasant consequence are less likely to be repeated.

Question 2

In operant conditioning, what is a reinforcer?

Answer 2

Any stimulus (action or event) that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response (behaviour) occurring again.

Question 3

In operant conditioning, what is a punisher?

Answer 3

Any stimulus (action or event) that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response (behaviour) occurring again.

Question 4

What are the two types of reinforcement?

Answer 4

Positive and negative reinforcement.

Question 5

Describe positive reinforcement.

Answer 5

The procedure of presenting a positive reinforcer after a response, thereby increasing the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again.

Question 6

Describe negative reinforcement.

Answer 6

The removal of an aversive stimulus as a consequence of a response, which will increase the likelihood of that response.

Question 7

What are the two types of punishment?

Answer 7

Aversive punishment and response cost.

Question 8

Describe aversive punishment.

Answer 8

Occurs when aversive or unpleasant stimuli is given or applied after an undesired behaviour takes place, with the aim of making the behaviour less likely to occur in the future.

Question 9

Describe response cost.

Answer 9

Occurs when certain responses result in the loss of something pleasurable/when a pleasant stimuli is removed, with the aim of making the behaviour less likely to occur in the future.

Question 10

Explain whether it is better to use reinforcement or punishment.

Answer 10

Since reinforcement focuses on increasing a desired behaviour and punishment focuses on reducing an unwanted behaviour but does not teach a replacement, it is typically recommended to use positive reinforcement when trying to make a behaviour change.

Question 11

List the advantages of reinforcement.

Answer 11

• Teaches correct behaviour
• Makes a child, animal or adult feel loved and appreciated
• Helps develop self-esteem
• Increases motivation to do the correct behaviour again in the future

Question 12

List the disadvantages of punishment.

Answer 12

• Feelings of resentment, frustration, aggression, and helplessness may develop in a person who is punished frequently
• Punished behaviour is not forgotton, it is suppressed and may return when the punishment, or threat of punishment, is no longer present
• Can create fear of people in authority, which can be generliased to other situations
• Adults who model aggressive punishments can incidentally cause increased aggression, as this teachers the children to show that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

Question 13

How can punishment be made effective?

Answer 13

When it is brief, immediate and linked to the undesired behaviour in the mind of the person/animal, and a positive behaviour can be taught to replace the negative behaviour which can then be reinforced.

Question 14

In operant conditioning, what is contiguity?

Answer 14

Refers to the timing during the learning phase, or how ideas, memories and experiences are linked closely together in time. The consequence needs to be provided as close as possible to the behaviour for the association to occur.

Question 15

In operant conditioning, what is contingency?

Answer 15

Relationship between a response and a reinforcer/the punisher (dependent on each other).

Question 16

As part of operant conditioning and contingency, what do consequences need to be in order to be effective?

Answer 16

• Consistent: the reinforcer or punisher must occur every time for the association to be made.
• Appropriate: the same reinforcer or punisher cannot be used for every individual, since it may have no effect if it is not relevant or important to the individual.

Question 17

Define shaping.

Answer 17

A desired behavior is taught by reinforcing successive approximations, or steps, toward the final goal. This process involves reinforcing each small action that moves closer to the target behavior until the desired action is achieved.

Question 18

When is shaping used?

Answer 18

It is often used to teach complex behaviors that would not occur naturally by providing reinforcement for behaviors that are closer and closer to the ultimate goal, such as training animals or teaching children new skills.

Question 19

Describe the differences between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

Answer 19

Similarities: both types of reinforcement aim to increase the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.
Differences: Positive reinforcement involves providing or receiving a pleasant stimulus (reward). Negative reinforcement involves removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus.

Question 20

Describe the differences between aversive punishment and response cost in operant conditioning

Answer 20

Similarities: both types of punishment aim to decrease the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.
Differences: the difference is with regard to whether the stimulus is pleasant or unpleasant, and whether the stimulus is added or removed. Aversive punishment involves providing or receiving an unpleasant stimulus, whereas response cost involves removing a pleasant stimulus.

Question 21

Explain the importance of contiguity and contingency in operant conditioning

Answer 21

Contiguity and contingency both relate to the timing between the behaviour and the consequence in operant conditioning. They are important, otherwise an association between the behaviour and consequence is less likely to occur – learning is less likely to occur.

Question 22

State the schedules of reinforcement.

Answer 22

Continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.

Question 23

Describe continuous reinforcement.

Answer 23

When reinforcement is given after each and every demonstration or performance of the desired behaviour; learning happens quickly when this is used.

Question 24

What are the drawbacks of continuous reinforcement?

Answer 24

If reinforcement is stopped, the behaviour will quickly slow down and eventually stop.

Question 25

Describe partial reinforcement.

Answer 25

Occurs when only some of the desired behaviours are reinforced. These consist of interval and ratio schedules.

Question 26

Describe fixed interval.

Answer 26

Reinforcement is delivered at a predictable time (e.g., after 5, 10, 15 mins).

Question 27

Describe variable interval.

Answer 27

Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 2, 7, 26 mins).

Question 28

Describe fixed ratio.

Answer 28

Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, 8 responses).

Question 29

Describe variable ratio.

Answer 29

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 9, 16 responses).

Question 30

In operant conditioning, describe learning, performance and extinction for continuous reinforcement.

Answer 30

Learning: fast, best when learning something new. Performance: may become dependent on the reward being present; high rate of response. Extinction: extinction rate is fast, and more likely when the reward stops.

Question 31

In operant conditioning, describe learning, performance and extinction for fixed interval.

Answer 31

Learning: Once the interval is learned, performance will drop off until the next interval approaches. Performance: Moderate response rate, but there is no incentive to perform the behaviour between rewards. Behaviour increases as the next time interval approaches. Extinction: Resistance to extinction increases as the interval lengthens in time, however, it is likely to become extinct quite quickly with no reinforcer.

Question 32

In operant conditioning, describe learning, performance and extinction for variable interval.

Answer 32

Learning: Moderate, steady response pattern. Performance: Moderate yet steady response rate, as the reinforcer is not known as to when it will come. Extinction: More resistant to extinction than the fixed interval schedule, as long as the intervals are similar.

Question 33

In operant conditioning, describe learning, performance and extinction for fixed ratio.

Answer 33

Learning: Useful when learning something new but do not want to reinforce every correct behaviour. Performance: High response rate with pauses after reinforcement. Extinction: Extinction is reached quickly when all the reinforcement is taken away.

Question 34

In operant conditioning, describe learning, performance and extinction for variable ratio.

Answer 34

Learning: Useful once a behaviour has already been learned; best way to maintain behaviour. Performance: High and steady response rate. Extinction: Very addictive, and resistant to extinction.

Question 35

What is a placebo?

Answer 35

A treatment which could be a medication, therapy, or other intervention that appears to have the benefits of the medical intervention.

Question 36

What is the placebo effect?

Answer 36

A phenomenon that occurs when a person believes he or she is receiving real treatment and reports an improvement in his or her condition. It is a mind over matter situation dependent on expectation.

Question 37

Describe behaviour modification.

Answer 37

A set of therapies/techniques based on operant conditioning theory, namely the process of modifying behaviours over the long-term using various motivational techniques, and reinforcement strategies (either positive or negative). The aim is to replace innappropriate or problematic behaviours with more positive, desirable ones.

Question 38

Describe the steps and process of behaviour modification.

Answer 38

Step 1 - Monitor the amount of time currently doing the activity to create a baseline for how problematic the behaviour currently is. Step 2 - Negotiate a realistic goal to work towards with the person. Step 3 – Discuss and agree upon a reinforcement schedule with a set of rules for when the person can be rewarded. Step 4 -Start the behaviour modification program and reward small improvements in the desired behaviour. Step 5 - Gradually remove the reward to determine whether the behaviour has improved. An alternative or additional strategy is to change the environment or condition that is currently reinforcing the undesirable behaviour.