Human degradation of the landscape and ecosystems
- Table 7.4 attempts to quantify the impact of activities such as walking on a range of commonly occurring ecosystems in glaciated environments.
- There seems to be a threshold beyond which the vegetation begins to suffer and the downward spiral of wear shown in Figure 7.12 sets in.
- Other types of tourism, such as pony trekking or mountain biking, are even more damaging than walking.
- Inevitably glaciated highland areas suffer from soil erosion, especially when slopes are exposed, for example by clear-cut tree felling or other examples of deforestation, as this exposes the fragile ecosystems to the weather.
- Soil erosion is a major problem in many Andean areas as the slopes are often over-cultivated or overgrazed, largely because of pressure on the land to provide subsistence for growing populations.
The effects of people walking on mountain ecosystems
The effects of wear on an ecosystem
Phenology:
The study of the timing of natural events and phenomena, such as the first day snowdrops appear, in relation to climate.
Glacial environments in peril
- A global snapshot of the state of the world’s glaciers (in 2015) clearly shows the impact of climate warming - with supporting climatological and phenological evidence (impact on various weather events, such as first snows, first pussy willow catkins out, first day of lawn mowing and so on).
- While some of the world’s glaciers are still advancing, the vast majority are currently retreating.
Here are some scary facts: - On the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, all the glaciers have lost between 25 and 75 per cent of their mass since 1850.
- In 1949 in Tajikistan, Central Asia, glaciers covered 18,500 km2 of land; in 2012 the covered only 11,000 km2, a 38 per cent decrease.
- Around 95 per cent of Himalayan glaciers are in rapid retreat; for example, the Khumbu Glacier (one of the highest in the world at the base of Everest) has retreated over 5 km since 1953.
- Areas in Peru and Bolivia covered by glaciers shrank by 25 per cent over the last 30 years.
There are very few areas where glaciers are expanding. - One example is that of the maritime glaciers in Scandinavia; here the elements of changing precipitation have contributed to a more positive mass balance.
- Data from the satellite surveys of the Greenland Ice Sheet shows a huge decrease in the ice-covered area, and new data from West Antarctica shows it is beginning to follow trends in East Antarctica with a massive loss in shelf ice.
- Recent and regular surveys confirm that this melt and retreat is happening at an ever-increasing (exponential) rate as positive feedback is amplifying the process
less ice → loss of albedo → reduced reflection → more atmospheric warming → more melting - The destabilising effect of climate warming can be looked at in two very significant contexts - changes to the hydrological cycle and changes in sea level.
Changes to the hydrological cycle
This will have serious consequences for millions of people.
Mountainous areas and diminishing water supply
- In mountainous areas such as the Andes and Himalayas, glacial meltwater feeds rivers; changes in discharge will have knock-on effects on sediment yield and water quality.
- Rivers in Asia, such as the Mekong, Yangtze, Brahmaputra, Ganges and Hwange Ho, are all fed by Himalayan glacial meltwater.
- The loss of a steady supply has huge implications for the population powerhouses of India and China (together containing over a third of the world’s population), both emerging as superpowers with almost insatiable demands for water for development of both their people’s quality of life and their economies.
- Western China’s semi-desert area contains 350 million farmers dependent on water supplied from the glaciers of the Tibetan plateau, an area experiencing high amounts of glacial thinning.
- Water shortages could affect 538 million people - some 42 per cent of China’s people - hence the development of massive hard-engineering solutions for water security such as dams, and the South-North water transfer scheme.
- In India the reduction of glacial meltwater flowing into the Ganges-Brahmaputra system is likely to result in at least 500 million people facing water shortages, with nearly 40 per cent of India’s irrigated (post-Green Revolution) land being affected.
The High Andes p1
- Runoff from ‘glacierised’ basins is an important element of water budgets in the High Andes, assuring sufficient supplies of drinking water, HEP, ecosystem viability and integrity, as well as year-round flows for an increasingly intensive irrigation-based agriculture.
- Any changes induced by Andean glacier retreat will therefore have both economic and social consequences and will require adaptation measures.
- Andean ‘tropical glaciers’ have declined by around sixteen per cent overall since 1970, but many smaller glaciers have disappeared completely, for example Cotacachi in Ecuador or, almost disappeared (82 per cent gone) Chacaltaya in Bolivia.
- While the rapid melting initially led to an unsustainable net increase in hydrological run off, now there is the issue of loss of biodiversity and declines in agriculture and tourism, with many almost water-less streams.
- As glaciers cease to act as runoff regulators, seasonal water and HEP power supplies will be affected.
- Bolivian urban centres such as La Paz, El Alto (total population 2.5 million) rely on glacier meltwater for about 40 per cent of their drinking water supply.
- In Quito in Ecuador, the situation could be even worse, with glacial meltwater currently contributing 50 per cent of the water supply for its 2 million people.
- Changing hydrological conditions will affect water costs and the ability of the two urban areas to maintain vibrant economies.
The high Andes p2
- Various scenarios have been modelled for the discharges of the Andean streams with and without melting, and there is no doubt that additional streams will need diverting for both urban areas from a wider area, and soon.
- Glacier retreat will also affect HEP generation (50 per cent of total energy in Ecuador and 80 per cent in Peru comes from HEP).
- There are economic consequences of this reduction - including the extra costs of electricity as well as the possible need for rationing supply.
- There are cultural, almost spiritual, costs also for the Quechuan and Aymaran Indian people, who have long-revered the highest snow-covered Andean peaks as religious icons.
- Rapid glacier retreat will disrupt the water cycle in a whole series of individual glacier-dependent basins, thus having a local impact on agricultural communities, but at the same time there will be national impacts as countries have to change their energy mix for generating electricity.
- For example, Peru may have to invest in additional thermal-based power stations or gradually develop alternative energy sources, as well as building additional reservoirs for drinking water, all at higher costs to its economy even though its own population has contributed little to the causes of climate change.
There are a number of possible approaches to the management of cold environments,
Do nothing
Business as usual
Sustainable exploitation
Sustainable management
Comprehensive conservation
Total protection
Which strategy is appropriate depends on the area and the interplay of the views of involved players. In some areas there are immediate crises, for others time to plan ahead. For most areas there are a number of alternative strategies; often these are appropriate only for certain parts of a large area. Zoning is often a very useful middle way, with the highest-value wilderness areas fully protected, possibly surrounded by areas where sustainable activity is permitted - for example, the buffer zone within a biosphere reserve, and designated areas which are targeted for economic development.
Do nothing
lies at one end of the spectrum. It allows multiple economic uses to flourish. The ethos would be to allow cold environments to be exploited for whatever resources are in demand and profitable.
This approach might be supported by governments at local or national level for revenues, or by some local people, for example chambers of commerce or trade unions for employment potential, or by developers such as industrialists and globalised TNCs, for example energy and mining companies.
Business as usual
is a very similar approach, leaving the area as it currently stands, but this might include aspects of pre-existing sustainability such as self-regulation on environmental issues. All TNCs have pre-existing environmental policies as part of their mission statements. With the exception of conservationists, most players are content with the status quo.
Sustainable exploitation
- can be regarded as a middle way; it targets development for profit but with the insistence on mandatory environmental regulation, for instance waste disposal.
- It can be channelled to provide distinctive benefits for the community, for example the development of fishing for local communities or sustainable hunting.
- In theory it takes into account the vested interests of many players at a variety of scales, but it relies on considerable compromise for it to be successful.
Sustainable management
- attempts to develop an area in a way that uses resources for the benefit of the existing community without destroying the environment but, at the same time, conserving resources for future generations.
- The four facets of the sustainability quadrant or the three facets of the stool of sustainability are very difficult to achieve, especially in cold environments.
- There are tensional forces between the need to conserve fragile, vulnerable environments yet at the same time to exploit vital resources for the economic well-being of future generations.
- This is very clearly shown by the controversy over Alaskan oil where there is a clash between environmentalists, local indigenous peoples, state and national governments, and oil companies.
- Many NGOs, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), favour sustainable development as an approach as ultimately it could be a good way to conserve the landscape and support indigenous communities.
Comprehensive conservation
- aims to protect and conserve glacial and periglacial environments as wilderness, especially where still in a pristine condition.
- Only carefully regulated ecotourism or organic eco-farming is likely to be favoured by environmentalists and those allowed to practice and enjoy it (local businesses and tourists).
- Exploitative activities such as mining would not be permitted.
- Governments might be ambivalent towards it as, in the short term, less income might be earned.
Total protection
is an approach really only favoured by conservationists and some traditionalists among local people, as this does not permit access to the pristine environment at all, except perhaps for scientific monitoring and research purposes. It therefore does not allow local people to earn revenue from it, or tourists to enjoy it.
Legislative frameworks to protect and conserve glaciated landscapes
Legislative frameworks can be developed at a number of scales and can aid the protection and conservation of glaciated landscapes considerably, provided they are closely policed and monitored. Mandatory legislation has ‘teeth’ and is likely to be far more successful in protection and conservation than frameworks and agreements (hard versus soft strategies).
International scale- e.g
- Antarctica has had a unique system of international governance since the passing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 for all areas south of 60°S.
- The ATS established Antarctica as a continent of peace and science, and set all pre-existing territorial claims of seven countries to one side.
- Around sixty countries have now signed (including all those with bases on Antarctica), representing some 88 per cent of the world’s peoples.
- Since 1959 more than 250 recommendations and four separate international agreements have been adopted to form the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS):
Since 1959 more than
250 recommendations and four separate international agreements have been adopted to form the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS):
• 1964 Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Fauna (AMCAFF)
• 1972 Convention for Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS)
• 1982 Convention for Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
• 1998 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (EP)
Now over 50 years old, the Treaty is recognised as one of the most successful international agreements, but there is the need to go a stage further towards Greenpeace’s World Park concept.
International scale p2
- However, Antarctica is a long way ahead compared to other areas and at least by being proactive and forward looking it is to an extent ‘future proof”.
- The other large polar area, the Arctic, is in a far less healthy situation.
- While there are many similarities with Antarctica, the physiography is very different.
- It is essentially an oceanic area surrounded by powerful countries (including the superpowers USA and Russia).
- Moreover whereas 97 per cent of Antarctica is covered by ice, in the Arctic there are extensive areas of terrestrial tundra vegetation, as well as valuable marine ecosystems.
- As a result, over 4 million people live in the Arctic, a third of these being indigenous groups whose traditional way of life and cultural values must be protected and conserved.
- Eight countries currently have territory and territorial waters within the Arctic Circle.
- These countries work together through the intergovernmental Arctic Council, which was set up by the 1996 Ottawa Declaration as a forum to promote co-operation among the Arctic states.
- Indigenous communities are consulted on key issues, such as sustainable development and environmental protection.
- It was strengthened in 2003 by the Polar Code which, in theory, enables nations to enforce stricter environmental regulations in Arctic areas.
- The UN manages territorial disputes using vehicles such as the UN Convention for the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), but recently increased geopolitical tensions have occurred as the melting sea ice has led to greater accessibility via the opening of new sea routes, and the feasible exploitation of more mineral deposits.
- Many would argue that the Arctic Council and its framework could be strengthened into a treaty-based organisation with regulatory powers in order to directly manage issues such as territorial claims, fishing rights and quotas, biodiversity conservation and shipping.
- Other examples of international co-operation include the Alpine Convention and the Svalbard Treaty.
Yosemite National Park p1
- Yosemite National Park covers an area of 302,687 km? on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in California.
- As it encompasses a height range from 648 m to nearly 4,000 m, it has very high levels of biodiversity with giant sequoia stands as well as alpine meadows and the wetlands of the Merced valley.
- The scenery can best be described as ‘awesome with sheer sided granite domes over which spectacular waterfalls form combined with ‘textbook’ glaciated features such as troughs and hanging valleys.
- Yosemite finally became a National Park in 1916 after many years of partial Federal Administration, originally to protect its environment from exploitation from activities such as logging.
- World Heritage status for both natural and cultural categories was awarded in 1984, Yosemite is the archetypal location to study the issues of conservation and protection versus the impacts of tourism and recreational use.
- The main problem is that of managing the 5 million visitors (2016), 90 per cent of whom are concentrated in just 6 per cent of the park’s area in the main Yosemite valley.
- The classic visitor profile is that of day trippers who arrive by car and explore the main valley where the facilities are concentrated, as well as viewing from honeypot sites.
- There is accommodation for 16,000 overnighters.
- Only a small minority of visitors are long stay, active hikers who go up country to Wilderness areas which are all permit controlled to avoid over capacity and subsequent ecological damage.
- Visitor numbers have doubled since the 1980s and a number of management problems have occurred. These include:
Visitor numbers have doubled since the 1980s and a number of management problems have occurred. These include:
The degradation of the natural vegetation with habitat fragmentation especially in the main Yosemite valley.
• The invasion by alien plant species.
• The frequent occurrence of wildfires, some started by people.
• Traffic congestion from visitors resulting in atmospheric pollution, for example, along Glacier Point Road.
• A major brown bear problem - they raid the garbage bins on the campsites
• Overcrowding by cars and ‘selfie taking’ tourists at the most beautiful views overlooking the waterfalls, with eroded trails.
As these problems have escalated, this has resulted in many attempts over the last 40 years to develop management plans. This has proved very difficult as there are many conflicts of interest, with a spectrum of opinions from Environmental groups such as the Sierra Club who favour protectionist strategies through to commercial enterprises at Curry Village who favour unfettered tourism access.
The general management principles to guide the planning and management of the Park in the future are:
The general management principles to guide the planning and management of the Park in the future are:
A Retain the unique, priceless beauty of the whole park.
B Allow natural processes to prevail for the maintenance of healthy valley ecosystems and also to protect native Indian settlements.
C Promote visitor understanding and enjoyment by developing education programmes via high quality visitor services and facilities.
D Reduce traffic congestion and overcrowding by developing car parks outside the park with visitors transported by fleets of electric shuttle buses to park vistas, so cutting the number of private cars.
- Quotas and limits on day visitor numbers especially in peak periods would also support this.
- Whilst there is general agreement on these underlying principles, some of the proposed strategies such as cutting the number of overnight beds and car parking facilities and putting the main visitor centre not only outside the main valley, but even outside the park, have proved extremely controversial.
- Many of the problems which result from over use for recreation and tourism can be resolved to an extent, but the underlying one of visitor management is opposed by many groups as it could entail plans to control access for recreation and tourism to some sites at certain times.
- Visitors can be resistant to plans to disperse them away from the iconic vistas and they soon make their feelings known on social media.
National scale
- At a national scale there are frameworks for the development of a whole hierarchy of conservation areas ranging from National Parks through to areas of special scientific interest, with varying rules and regulations for each country concerning permitted activities and access.
- In the Arctic, for example, there are probably more protected areas than in any other region, with over fifteen per cent of the area protected because of the relatively few competing land uses there (compared to Alpine areas).
- All eight countries have some parts of their Arctic territories protected - for example 56 per cent of Alaska (USA) has some kind of protected status.
- Within Alaska there are many National Parks, with federally owned land.
- Some, like the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), are vast wildernesses with a range of ecosystems from boreal forest in the south and treeless tundra in the north, with many animal species such as wolves, caribou, bears and snow geese.
- However, in the continued search for oil - ‘black gold’ - to reinforce US energy security, permission has now been granted to drill in part of the ANWR.
- So much for the protection status
- finland has an alternative system. Around 33 per cent of its Arctic region is protected with a system of National Parks for public access, but also a number of strict Nature Reserves with very limited public areas.
- An example is Kevo in Finnish Lapland, which has only a few marked trails, with entry by permit only.
Global systems for conservation p1
- Individual species are protected by global strategies such as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) signed in 1973 - many Arctic species are on the list, including polar bears and walruses.
- Conservationists would challenge their effectiveness, citing the examples of whales and elephants (ivory trade).
- Whales also are protected but limited numbers are allowed to be caught for scientific purposes, usually by Russia and Japan, leading to global protests from organisations such as Greenpeace.
- The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has published a Red List for endangered species, with polar bears currently classified as ‘vulnerable.
- However, so far the US refuses its accepted designation as this would mean acknowledging climate warming as the main reason for vulnerability.
- UNESCO administers a global system of World Heritage Sites, with site being listed because of their ecological or cultural importance.
- Wrangel Island (owned by Russia) was designated a World Heritage Ecological Site in 2004 as it has a very high level of biodiversity (including 23 endemics, large numbers of polar bear breeding dens, feeding grounds for grey whales, the world’s largest population of Pacific walrus and is a nesting ground for over 100 migratory species of bird).
- Some of the explorer’s huts in the Antarctic are designated cultural sites as they contain historic artefacts from expeditions such as those of Scott.
