Paper 1- Topic 2 Memory

Question 1

Define coding

Answer 1

the process of converting information between stores

Question 2

Describe the research on coding

Findings

Answer 2

Baddeley

• showed a list of words to 4 groups
• one group shown semantically similar words, one group semantically dissimilar, one acoustically similar and one acoustically dissimilar
• when asked to recall words immediately they recalled less acoustically similar words
• when asked to recall words after 20 mins they recalled less semantically similar words
• shows that info is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM

Question 3

Describe research on capacity

Answer 3

Jacob’s digit span test

• research reads out an increasing number of digits and the P repeats them back, until the P fails to recall them correctly
• mean digit span was 9.3
• mean letter span was 7.3

•Millers magic number 7
-STM can hold 7 +- 2 memories

Question 4

Describe research in duration of STM

Answer 4

Peterson and Peterson

• 24 students tested over a number of trials
• student given a consonant syllable (e.g. YCB) to recall after 3,6,9,12,15 seconds
• told to count backwards from a random number to prevent mental rehearsal
• found recall after 3 second was 80% but after 18 seconds it was 3 % (STM duration is 18 secs unless rehearsal is used)

Question 5

Describe research into duration of LTM

Answer 5

Bahrick et al

• studied about 400 Americans with large age spread
• asked to recall their high school classmates through: photo recognition and free recall (name as many in your class as you can)
• P’s within 15 years of graduation 90% were accurate in photo recognition
• P’s within 50 years of graduation 70% were accurate in photo recognition
• free recall declined from 60% to 30% for P’s 15 years and 50 years since graduation
• shows that LTM may last up to a lifetime

Question 6

Describe the sensory register in the multi store model

Answer 6

• all stimuli from environment passes into it
• unwanted info doesn’t pass further into the memory system (selective attention)
• has 5 sensory memory stores, one for each sense
  e. g. visual info is coded into the iconic memory
  e. g. sound info is coded into the echoic memory
• duration for sensory register is half a second and it has a very high duration

Question 7

Describe the short term memory in the multi store model

Answer 7

• info coded acoustically
• lasts 18 seconds
• limited capacity (7+-2)
• maintenance rehearsal keeps info in the STM

Question 8

Describe the long term memory in the multi store model

Answer 8

• coded semantically
• duration is up to lifetime
• unlimited capacity
• info being recalled from LTM into the STM is called retrieval
• prolonged rehearsal passes info into LTM

Question 9

3 LTM Stores

Answer 9

episodic memory
semantic memory
procedural memory

Question 10

what is episodic memory

examples

Answer 10

ability to remember events (episodes) from our lives

• time stamped
• consciously recalled

E.G. holiday, birthday, concert

Question 11

what is semantic memory

examples

Answer 11

our knowledge of the world

• your dictionary and encyclopaedia
• not time stamped

someone’s name
your opinions
Capital cities

Question 12

What is procedural memory

Examples

Answer 12

memory for how we do things- actions or skills (a procedure)

-require very little conscious recall

riding a bike
baking a cake

Question 13

what does the working memory model show

what are the 5 components

Answer 13

how the STM is organised and how it functions

central executive
visuo-spatial sketchpad
episodic buffer
phonological loop
LTM

Question 14

Function of the central executive

Answer 14

monitors incoming data and allocates slave systems to the data

Question 15

function of the phonological loop

Answer 15

stores auditory information

phonological store- stores words you hear
articulatory control system- allows maintenance rehearsal (hold up to two seconds worth of what you say)

Question 16

function of visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 16

stores visual and spatial information

limited capacity of 3 or 4 objects
-split into visual cache (stores visual data) and inner scribe (the arrangements of the object in visual field)

Question 17

function of the episodic buffer

Answer 17

• temporary store for information that integrates all the visual, spatial and verbal processes
• it links the working memory to LTM and cognitive processes like perception

Question 18

define interference

Answer 18

when one memory blocks another and leads to one or both memories being forgotten or distorted

Question 19

Describe research into forgetting through interference

Answer 19

McGeoch and McDonald
-gave P’s a list of words until they were 100% accurate at recalling
-gave them a second list to learn (e.g. synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words, random letters or digits and no new list)
-then had to recall first list
•found the more similar the lists were the greater the level of interference

Question 20

Define retrieval failure

Answer 20

when you forget a memory because you don’t have the right cues needed to access

-memory is available but not accessible

Question 21

define a cue

Answer 21

a trigger of information that allows us to access memory

can be direct (e.g. mnemonics) or indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning (e.g. internal- emotion, drunk) or (external- environment)

Question 22

What is Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Principle

Answer 22

• if a cue is to be successful it must be present at learning of the memory and retrieval of the memory
• if cues at encoding and retrieval are different, forgetting will occur

Question 23

what is context dependent forgetting

Answer 23

When we forget information because the contextual cues (e.g. environment, smells) present when retrieval occurs are different to those present at learning

Question 24

what is state dependent forgetting

Answer 24

we forget information as our internal state is different at recall to the state at learning

Question 25

study involving context dependent forgetting

Answer 25

Baddeley - taught 4 groups of divers information either underwater or on land and asked for recall in either underwater or land - found recall was 40% lower in non matching conditions - retrieval failure occurred as external cues available at learning were different to recall

Question 26

study involving state dependent forgetting

Answer 26

Carter - people were taught information either on drugs or not on drugs and asked to recall it on drugs or not on drugs - when the states were the different for learning and recall, retrieval was significantly worse

Question 27

define anxiety in relation to EWT

Answer 27

state of emotional and physical arousal emotional aspects- tension, worry physical aspects- sweating, increased heart rate

Question 28

Describe the study where anxiety has a positive effect on recall

Answer 28

Yuille and Cutshall studied the witness of an actual shooting -interviewed to recall events 5 months after and scale their level of stress at the time. Results were compared to original police interviews

Question 29

Findings of Yuille and Cutshall study

Answer 29

-witness accounts were very accurate -those with highest recorded stress were most accurate 88% accuracy compared to 75% for less stressed group

Question 30

Findings of Johnson and Scott study

Answer 30

- 49% recognised the man holding pen - 33% recognised the man holding bloody knife - due to anxiety P focused on weapon (due to tunnel theory) so reduce recall of non central events

Question 31

Describe the arousal curve and it’s link to accuracy of eye witness recall

Answer 31

Yerkes-Dodsons Law suggests that relationship between emotional arousal and performance is a inverted U - witnessing a crime creates emotional and physiological (fight or flight) arousal - lower levels of arousal produce less recall - as levels of arousal increase so does recall, up to the optimum where after this recall drastically decreases

Question 32

Define eye witness testimony

Answer 32

ability of people to remember the details of the events that they have observed -accuracy of this recall can be influenced by misleading information and anxiety

Question 33

define misleading information and two examples

Answer 33

incorrect information given to an eyewitness after the event which can affect their recall e.g. leading questions and post event discussion

Question 34

Describe the study where anxiety is shown to have a negative effect on recall

Answer 34

Johnson and Scott told P’s they were waiting to do a study but while waiting they were split into two conditions - one group heard a casual conversation followed by someone walking out holding a pen - other group heard a heated argument, glass breaking and a man left holding a bloody knife -P’s were asked to pick the man out of 50 photos

Question 35

describe research on leading questions

Answer 35

Loftus and Palmer - 45 student P’s watched a clip of a car accident - asked random questions and one critical (leading) question asking them to describe the speed of the car before the crash - 5 groups had 5 different verbs in the question (smashed, hit, bumped, contacted, collided)

Question 36

findings of Loftus and Palmer study

Answer 36

-when verb smashed was used, the mean estimated speed was 40 mph compared to the verb contacted estimating mean speeds of 31.8 mph

Question 37

Two opposing explanations as to why leading questions affect eye witness testimony

Answer 37

1. Response bias - wording of question has no effect on the P’s memory but influences the way they answer the question 2. Substitution explanation - the wording of question changes the P’s memory of the event - In Loftus and Palmer’s second study they found that P’s who heard the word ‘smashed’ were more likely to report broken glass

Question 38

define leading question

Answer 38

question which is written in away to suggest a certain answer for the respondent to give e.g. what hand was the knife in?

Question 39

describe research on post-event discussion

Answer 39

Gabbert et al - P’s were paired and watched same crime from different angles and so saw different elements - they discussed the events before they recalled

Question 40

Findings of Gabbert et al study

Answer 40

-71% of P’s mistakenly recalled aspect they didn’t see but picked up in discussion compared to 0% in control group with no PED

Question 41

define post event discussion

Answer 41

more than witness to an event discuss what they have seen with each other, which may influence the accuracy of their recall of the event

Question 42

two explanations as to why post event discussion affects eye witness testimony accuracy

Answer 42

1. Memory contamination- witnesses combine memories of other witnesses, and they are altered or distorted 2. Memory conformity - witnesses go along with each other to gain approval or because they think they are right

Question 43

Define a cognitive interview

Answer 43

a method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories -uses four main techniques: re-instate the context, reverse the order, report everything, change perspective

Question 44

Four techniques used in cognitive interviews

Answer 44

* Report Everything - no matter how trivial as could result in cues for other memories * Reinstate the context- imagine environment of where event occurred and recall emotions (context dependent forgetting) may trigger cues for other memories * Reverse the order- much harder to lie, prevents expectations of what must have happened * Change perspective- perspective of different person, prevents use of schema and what must have happened

Question 45

What changes were made in the Enhanced Cognitive Interview

Answer 45

- Fisher added elements focusing on the social interaction to make the witness more comfortable and less anxious e. g. when to make eye contact, making witness speak slowly, minimising distractions, ask if more open needed questions