1
Q
Minerals
A
- The earth is composed of various kinds of elements.
- A mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance.
- It has an orderly atomic structure and a definite chemical composition as well as physical properties.
- It is composed of two or more elements.
- Minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold, graphite, etc. are single element minerals.
2
Q
Feldspar
A
- Oxygen and Silicon are common elements in all types of feldspar.
- Sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium, etc. are found in specific feldspar variety.
- It is the single most abundant mineral group on Earth and half of the crust of the earth is composed of feldspar.
- It has light cream to salmon pink colour.
- It is used for making ceramics and glass.
3
Q
Quartz
A
- It is one of the most important components of granite and sand.
- This hard mineral consists of silica and is virtually insoluble in water.
- It is used in radio and radar.
- This white or colourless mineral is the most important component of granite.
4
Q
Pyroxene
A
- Pyroxene comprises of aluminium, calcium, iron, magnesium, and silica.
- It forms 10 per cent of the crust of the earth.
- It is usually found in meteorites and occur in green or black colour.
5
Q
Amphibole
A
- Calcium, iron, aluminium, silica, magnesium are the main elements of amphiboles.
- They form 7 % of the crust of the earth.
- It is found in green or black colour.
- It is mainly used in asbestos industry.
- The other form of amphiboles is Hornblende.
6
Q
Mica
A
- Mica comprises of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica, etc.
- It forms 4 % of the crust of the earth. It is generally found in metamorphic and igneous rocks.
- Mica is used in electrical instruments.
7
Q
Olivine
A
- Magnesium, iron and silica are the main elements of olivine.
- It is used in jewellery.
- It usually occurs in a greenish crystal form and is found in basaltic rocks.
8
Q
Minor Relief
A
The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions and some minor relief features in the ocean floors like
- Mid-Oceanic Ridges
- Seamounts
- Guyots
- Trenches
- Canyons
9
Q
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
A
- A mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain range, formed by plate tectonics.
- It is composed of two chains of mountains divided by a large depression.
- The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s surface.
- Examples for Mid-oceanic ridges:
- Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Atlantic Ocean
- East Pacific Rise
- Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
10
Q
Seamount
A
- Seamounts are mountains with pointed peaks, mounting from the seafloor, and that do not reach the surface of the ocean.
- They are volcanic in origin.
- Seamounts can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
- An extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean which is known as The Emperor seamount is an example of seamount.
11
Q
Submarine Canyons
A
- Submarine Canyons are a kind of narrow steep-sided valleys.
- It originates either within continental slopes or on a continental shelf.
- Congo Canyon is regarded as the largest river canyon.
- The Hudson Canyon is the best-known submarine canyon in the world.
- The largest submarine canyon in the world is Zhemchug Canyon.
12
Q
Guyots
A
- It is a flat topped seamount.
- It is also known as a table mount.
- They show evidence of slow subsidence through stages to become flat-topped submerged mountains.
- It is expected that more than 10,000 guyots and seamounts occur in the Pacific Ocean only.
13
Q
Atoll
A
- It is a ring-shaped coral reef containing a coral rim that encompasses a lagoon incompletely or completely.
- These are low islands found in the tropical oceans.
- It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or occasionally form encircling a body of brackish, fresh, or highly saline water.
14
Q
Ocean Floor Configuration
A
Divisions of the Ocean Floors
- An oceanic basin is the land surface under an ocean that includes the topography under the water. The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions:
- The Continental Shelf
- The Continental Slope
- The Deep Sea Plain
- The Trenches
15
Q
Minor relief features in the ocean floors
A
- Besides, the major divisions, there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors like
- Ridges
- Hills
- Seamounts
- Guyots
- Trenches
- Canyons
16
Q
Continental Shelf
A
- The continental shelf is the stretched margin of all continent occupied by comparatively shallow gulfs and sea.
- It is the shallowest part of the ocean
- The shelf normally ends at a very steep slope which is called the shelf break.
- The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km.
- The Continental shelves are very narrow or almost absent along certain margins like the
- Coasts of Chile
- The west coast of Sumatra
- The Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean is the largest in the world
- Enormous sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves, turn out to be the source of fossil fuels.
17
Q
Continental Slope
A
- The continental slope links the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
- It starts where the bottom of the continental shelf abruptly drops off into a steep slope.
- Canyons and trenches are seen in this region.
18
Q
Deep Sea Plain
A
- Deep sea plain is gently sloping areas
- These are the flattest and flattest areas
- These plains are completely covered with fine-grained deposits like silt and clay.
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Q
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
A
- Trenches are the deepest parts of the oceans.
- The trenches are comparatively steep-sided and have narrow basins.
- They are some 3-5 km deeper than the adjacent ocean floor.
- They are found at the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs
- Trenches are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes.
- That is why they are very important in the study of plate movements.
20
Q
Different kinds of rocks
A
There are many different kinds of rocks which are classified into three families on the basis of their mode of formation.
Classification of Rocks:
Igneous Rocks- Solidified from magma and lava
Sedimentary Rocks- The result of the deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous processes
Metamorphic Rocks- Formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallization
21
Q
Igneous Rocks
A
- It is formed out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth.
- They are also known as primary rocks.
- When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into solid form it is called igneous rock.
- The process of cooling and solidification can happen in the crust of the earth or on the surface of the earth.
- Igneous rocks are classified based on texture.
- If the molten material is
- Cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
- Sudden cooling at the surface results in small and smooth grains.
- Intermediate conditions of cooling would result in intermediate sizes of grains making up igneous rocks.
- Examples of igneous rocks
- Granite
- Gabbro
- Pegmatite
- Basalt
- Volcanic
- Breccia
- Tuff
22
Q
Sedimentary Rocks
A
- Rocks of the earth’s surface are exposed to denudation agents and are broken up into various sizes of fragments.
- These fragments are carried by various exogenous agencies and deposited.
- These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
- In several sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits maintain their characteristics even after lithification.
- Sandstone, shale are some of the examples for Sedimentary Rocks.
- Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are categorized into three groups:
- Mechanically formed
- Eg: Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess, etc.
- Chemically formed
- Eg: Chert, limestone, halite, potash, etc.
- Organically formed
- Eg: Geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal, etc.
23
Q
Metamorphic Rocks
A
- These rocks form under the action of volume, pressure, and temperature (PVT) changes.
- Metamorphism happens when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are exposed to great amounts of pressure by overlying rocks.
- The materials of rocks chemically modify and recrystallize due to thermal metamorphism.
- There are two types of thermal metamorphism
- Contact metamorphism
- Regional metamorphism
- Contact metamorphism
- The rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the rock materials recrystallize under high temperatures.
- Regional metamorphism
- The rocks experience recrystallization due to deformation caused by tectonic shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.
24
Q
Physiographic Division of Great Plains of India
A
- The Great North Indian plains are homogeneous surface with an invisible slope. These are alluvial fertile plains formed by the deposition process of the Himalayan Rivers. Along with the Himalayan Rivers, the Vindhyan Rivers are also having a prominent role in making the land fertile. It deposits a large amount of sediments along the foothills. The sedimentary deposition makes this area fertile and the bread basket of the country and it plays a crucial role in socio-economic-cultural spheres. The Great north Indian plain is divided into following subdivisions on the basis of relief features:
- The Bhabar Plains
- The Tarai Tract
- The Bhangar
- The Khadar
- Delta Plains
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The Bhabar Plains
The Bhabar plains lie to the south of Shiwalik from Jammu to Assam. The width of bhabar plains is more in the western region than in the eastern region. The bhabar tract consists of gravel and un-assorted sediment deposits. This sediment is deposited by rivers descending from the Himalayas. This region is not suitable for cultivation. The area is characterized by big trees with large roots.
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The Tarai tract
The Tarai tract, lies south to the Bhabar tract. It is a marshy tract with malarial climate. The width of Tarai tract is more in the eastern region. This area receives high rainfall and has excessive humidity, thick forest and rich flora and fauna. Nowadays the Tarai tract in Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh has been cleared for cultivation because it is rich in humus and organic matter. It is good for the cultivation of Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane etc.
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The Bhangar Plains
These are older alluvial plain which represents upland alluvial tract. These areas are well drained and suitable for cultivation. It is formed by the depositional activities in the middle Pleistocene period. This area lies above the flood limits of the rivers. The soil is rich in humus and it gives a high yield. It contains the calcium carbonate nodules called ‘Kankars’ which are impure in nature.
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The Khadar Plains
These are new alluvial deposit along the course of the river. It is enriched by fresh deposits of silt every year. The Khadar land silt consists of silt, mud, clay, and sand. The Khadar lands are devoted to the cultivation of sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize and oilseeds.
29
The Delta plains
The delta plain is considered as the extension of Khadar land. This area is a depositional area in the lower reaches of Ganga River. It comprises of old mud, new mud, and marsh. The uplands of delta region are ‘Chars’ and the marshy areas are ‘Bils’. This area is good for the cultivation of paddy, tea and jute.
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**Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas**
Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas is an important segment in the IAS Geography syllabus of the UPSC civil services exam.
The Himalayas, the abode to the highest peaks on earth, are incredible mountain system of Asia and a great wall between the Plateau of Tibet to the north and the alluvial plains of the Indian subcontinent to the south. It is divided longitudinally into 5 divisions from west to east.
1. The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas
2. The Kumaun Himalayas
3. The Central/ Nepal Himalayas
4. The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas
31
The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas
**The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas**
Kashmir Himalayas lies between Indus River and Sutlej. A significant portion of the Himalayas lies in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. This is also known as Punjab Himalayas.
**In Jammu and Kashmir region:** It is characterized by high snow covered peaks, deep valleys, interlocked spurs and High Mountain passes. The range stretches for 700km in length and 500 km in width. It has a height of 3000 m with a large number of glaciers. The Ladakh region of the Kashmir Himalayas is dominated by cold desert conditions. The Kashmir valley which belongs to this division is surrounded by the Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas. The Karewa soil is found here and this area is famous for the saffron and other dry fruit cultivation.
Important passes of the Kashmir Himalayas: Pir panjal, Banihal, Zoji La, Burzil, Khardungla, Pensi- La, Saser- La, Lanak- La, Jara- La, Tasaka-La, Umasi-La and Qara-Tagh-La. The important snow-capped peaks are Nanda Devi, Trisul, Nunkun, Kamath and Nanga-Parbat
**In the Himachal Pradesh Region:** All the three ranges- the greater, the lesser and the outer Himalayas are well represented in this region. The northern slopes of the Himachal Himalayas are covered with thick forest, plains and lakes. The southern slopes are rugged with forest clad. The Kangra valley, Kullu- Manali lies here. These areas are highly productive and well known for orchards and scenic beauty. Dalhousie, Shimla, Chamba, Kullu- Manali and Dharam sala is the important hill station in this region. The important passes are Rohtang pass, Bara-Lacha, Shipki La.
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The Kumaun Himalayas
This division lies between the Satluj and Kali River. The highest peak in this division is Nanda Devi. Important peaks in this region are Nanda Devi, Trisul, Kedarnath, Dunagiri, Kamet, Badrinath, Jaonli, Gangotri, and Bandarpunch. Pindari, Gangotri, and Milam are the important glaciers in this division. The major hill stations are Mussorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, and Bageshwar. The important passes are Thaga La, Muling La, Mana, Mangsha Dhura and Lipu Lekh.
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The Central / Nepal Himalayas
This division stretches from stretches from Kali River to Tista River. Major part of it lies in Nepal except for the extreme eastern part- Sikkim Himalayas. The important peaks are the Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaula giri, Annapurna, Manasuly, and Gosainath. Nathu La and Jelep La are the important passes in this region.
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The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas
* This division lies between Tista and the Brahmaputra River (Dihang). It occupies the state of Arunachal Pradesh in India and Bhutan. On the southern border of Arunachal Pradesh, it takes a southerly turn and ranges are arranged in North-South direction passing through Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura called Purvanchal. The Purvanchal is joined by Meghalaya Plateau in the west and its extension of the Myanmar mountain chain continues to Andaman and Nicobar islands and to the Archipelago of Indonesia.
* The Himalayas rise very rapidly in the plains of Assam and narrow at the foothills of Shiwaliks. It comprises of many hills called Aka hills, Dafla hills, Miri hills, Abor hills, Mishmi hills and Namcha Barwa. The important hills of eastern Himalayas are Pakai bum, Manipur hills, Blue Mountain, Tripura range and Brail range. The important passes in this region are Bomdi La, Yonggyap, Diphu, Pangsau, Tse La, Dihang, Debang, Tunga and Bom La
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When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following: (UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination 2012)
1. Deep gorges
2. U-turn river courses
3. Parallel mountain ranges
4. Steep gradients causing land-sliding
Which of the above can be said to be the evidences for Himalayas being young fold mountains?
1 and 2 only
1, 2 and 4 only
3 and 4 only
1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: D
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West Flowing Rivers of Peninsular India
The major west flowing rivers in Peninsular India are **Narmada and Tapi.**
Others:
1. Mahi
2. Sabarmati River
3. Luni
4. Tawa River
5. Sharavati River
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Narmada River
1. It is located mainly in Madhya Pradesh.
2. The Narmada River is also known as the Rewa River.
3. The River is originated from Maikala range near Amarkantak.
4. It is a West flowing river.
5. The River flows through Gujarat, Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
6. The tributaries of Narmada River are Kolar River, Shakkar River, Dudhi River, Tawa River, and Hiran River.
7. Major Hydro Power Project in this river are Maheshwar Dam, Sardar Sarovar Dam, and Indira Gandhi Sagar Dam.
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Tapti/Tapi River
1. The Tapti/Tapi River is located in Madhya Pradesh.
2. It originates from Multai reserve forest.
3. The river is flowing through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
4. Kakrapar Dam, Ukai Dam, Girna Dam are the major projects on this river.
5. The Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati, the Vaghur, the Amravati, the Purna, the Mona and the Sipna are the major tributaries of Tapti River.
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Mahi River
1. The river originates from Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh.
2. The river flows through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
3. The river drains in Gulf of Cambay.
4. Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam and Kadana Dam are the major Hydro Power stations situated on this river.
40
Sabarmati River
1. Sabarmati River is a combination of two streams the Sabar and Hathmati.
2. The river is flowing through Rajasthan and Gujarat.
3. It originates from Tepur in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
4. The Wakal, the Hathmati, the Vatrak and the Sei are the major tributaries of Sabarmati River.
5. Sabarmati reservoir, Hathmati reservoir, and Meshwo reservoir project are the major projects situated on this river.
41
Luni River
1. Luni is an endorheic river.
2. It is also known as the Sagarmati.
3. It originates from the Western slopes of the Aravalli ranges near Ajmer.
42
Tawa River
1. The river rises from the Satpura Range of Betul in MP.
2. This river is the longest tributary of River Narmada.
43
Sharavati River
1. This is an important river in the state of Karnataka flowing towards the west.
2. The Sharavati River originates from the Shimoga district of Karnataka.
3. The river drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km.
4. The Jog Falls is created by the Sharavati River.
44
Highest Peaks in States of India
1. The Himalayan Mountain ranges are considered as the abode of the mountains, and the youngest and highest mountain range in the world. The Himalayan Mountains are extending up to 2,500 km in length. It stretches from Jammu and Kashmir in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the east.
2. The major peaks in the Himalayas are situated in the Karakoram ranges, Garhwal Himalaya and Kanchenjunga. Kanchenjunga, Nanda Devi, and Kamet are the highest Himalayan Mountain Peaks.
3. The Kanchenjunga is the highest mountain peak in India and ranked 3rd highest summit in the world with an altitude of 8,586 m. The highest mountain Kanchenjunga is situated at the border of India and Nepal in the Himalayas range in Sikkim. Anamudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats in India and also the highest point in South India.
45
Rainfall In India
India is a vast country in geographical terms, with various regions experiences very different climatic conditions. This is also reflected in the distribution of rainfall in India. Some regions experience very high rainfall and others receive very scanty rainfall. The difference between the recorded highest and lowest rainfall in India is approximately 1178 cm
46
Rainfall Distribution in India
| (seven different climatic regions)
* Precipitation in India is irregular over the course of a year, with a well defined rainy season over most of the country starting in about June and ending in September. According to the Koppen climate classification, it has seven different climatic regions:
1. Tropical semi-arid
2. Sub-tropical arid desert
3. Sub-tropical semi-arid
4. Tropical rainforest
5. Tropical Savannah
6. Sub-tropical humid
7. Alpine
The average rainfall in India is 118 cm according to annual data from the Meteorological Department
47
Rainfall Distribution in India
The average rainfall in India is 118 cm according to annual data from the Meteorological Department. The following is the distribution of rainfall in India:
1. Extreme Precipitation regions
2. Heavy Precipitation regions
3. Moderate Precipitation regions
4. Scanty Precipitation regions
5. Desert and Semi-desert Regions
***The rainfall distribution in India is impacted by the _Thar desert and the Himalayas_. _Temperature and pressure changes over the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the southern part of the Pacific Ocean_ also play a significant role in the monsoon rains over the country.***
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Extreme Precipitation regions
Northeastern regions and the windward side of the Western ghats experience an average of 400cm of annual rainfall. Areas like Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and hilly tracts of the Western Ghats are host to tropical rainforests. The highest rainfall in India and the world is recorded at Mawsynram village of Meghalaya.
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Heavy Precipitation regions
The regions experiencing 200-300cm rainfall belong to this zone. Most of Eastern India is covered under this zone. These regions are also home to tropical rainforests. States such as West Bengal, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur, Orissa and Bihar are included in this zone. Most of the areas in the sub-Himalayan belt also fall under this zone
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Moderate Precipitation regions
Areas which experience 100 to 200 cm of rainfall include parts of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and leeward side of the Western Ghats. Wet Deciduous forests comprise the most common natural vegetation of these regions.
51
Scanty Precipitation regions
Areas having 50 to 100 cm of rainfall consisting of parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. Tropical Grasslands, Savannah and Dry Deciduous forests are commonly found in these areas.
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Desert and Semi-desert Regions
These are the areas receive below 50 cm of rainfall. The states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and adjacent areas are classified as desert or semi-desert based on the amount of rainfall they receive. Some parts of Jammu & Kashmir such as the Ladakh plateau are also included in this zone as cold deserts. The vegetation consists of hardy species which can withstand extended droughts. Some areas like parts of Gujarat have Savannah vegetation in the wetter regions. The lowest rainfall in India has been recorded in Ruyli village, Rajasthan.
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River Systems in India
* The rivers of India play a significant role in the lives of the Indian society. The river systems provide irrigation, drinking water, economical transportation, power, as well as grant livelihoods for a large number of population. This straightforwardly demonstrates that why all the major cities of India are positioned by the banks of the river.
* Most of the rivers discharge their waters into the Bay of Bengal. Some of the rivers flow through the western part of the country and towards the east of the state of Himachal Pradesh merges into the Arabian Sea. The northern parts of the Aravalli range, some parts of Ladakh, and arid regions of the Thar Desert have inland drainage. All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds-
1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram range
2. The Chota Nagpur plateau and Vindhya and Satpura range
3. The Western Ghats
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The major Indian river systems are
1. The Indus River System
2. The Brahmaputra River System
3. The Ganga River system
4. The Yamuna river System
5. The Narmada River System
6. The Tapi River System
7. The Godavari River System
8. The Krishna river system
9. The Cauvery River System
10. The Mahanadi River System
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The Indus River System
The Indus arises from the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar. It has a large number of tributaries in both India and Pakistan and has a total length of about 2897 km from the source to the point near Karachi where it falls into the Arabian Sea. It enters Indian Territory in Jammu and Kashmir by forming a picturesque gorge. In the Kashmir region, it joins with many tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok, the Nubra and the Hunza. It flows between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range. It crosses the Himalayas through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, which is lying north of the Nanga Parbat. The major tributaries of the Indus River in India are Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas, and Sutlej.
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The Brahmaputra River System
* The Brahmaputra originates from Mansarovar Lake, which is also a source of the Indus and Sutlej. It is a little longer than the Indus River. The most of its course lies outside India. It flows parallel to the Himalayas in the eastward direction. When it reaches Namcha Barwa, it takes a U-turn around it and enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. Here it is known as Dihang River. In India, it flows through the states of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam and is connected by several tributaries. The Brahmaputra has a braided channel throughout most of its length in Assam.
* The river is known as the Tsangpo in Tibet. It receives less volume of water and has less silt in the Tibet region. But in India, the river passes through a region of heavy precipitation and as such, the river carries large amount water during rainfall and a significant amount of silt. It is known for creating the calamity in Assam and Bangladesh.
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Ganga River System
The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier. Before it reaches Devaprayag, the Mandakini, the Pindar, the Dhauliganga and the Bishenganga rivers merge into the Alaknanda and the Bheling drain into the Bhagirathi. The Pindar River rises from East Trishul and Nanda Devi unite with the Alaknanda at Karan Prayag. The Mandakini meets at Rudra Prayag. The water from both Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda flows in the name of the Ganga at Devaprayag.
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The concept of Panch Prayag
1. Vishnuprayag: where the river Alaknanda meet river Dhauli Ganga
2. Nandprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Nandakini
3. Karnaprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Pinder
4. Rudraprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Mandakini
5. Devprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Bhagirathi -GANGA
The principle tributaries of the Ganga are Yamuna, Damodar, Sapt Kosi, Ram Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, and Son. The river after traveling a distance of 2525 km from its source meets the Bay of Bengal.
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Yamuna River System
The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the Ganga River. It originates from the Yamunotri glacier, at the Banderpoonch peak in Uttarakhand. The main tributaries joining the river include the Sin, Hindon, Betwa Ken and Chambal. The Tons is the largest tributary of the Yamuna. The catchment of the river extends to the states of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
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The Narmada River System
The Narmada is a river located in the central India. It rises to the summit of the Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state. It outlines the traditional frontier between North India and South India. It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India. Only the Narmada, the Tapti, and the Mahi rivers run from east to west. The river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat
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The Tapi River System
It is a central Indian river. It is one of the most important rivers of peninsular India with the run from east to west. It originates in the Eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state. It flows in a westward direction, draining some important historic places like Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s Khandesh in the northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat before draining into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea. The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly in eastern and northern districts Maharashtra state. The river also covers some districts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat as well. The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Waghur River, Aner River, Girna River, Purna River, Panzara River and Bori River.
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The Godavari River System
The Godavari River is the second longest course in India with brownish water. The river is often referred as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old) Ganga. It is a seasonal river, dried during the summers and widened during the monsoons. It river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra. It flows southeast across south-central India through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, and drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river forms a fertile delta at Rajahmundry. The banks of this river have many pilgrimage sites, Nasik, Bhadrachalam, and Triyambak. Some of its tributaries include Pranahita (Combination of Penuganga and Warda), Indravati River, Bindusara, Sabari, and Manjira. The Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge which links Kovvur and Rajahmundry is located on the river Godavari.
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The Krishna river system
The Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra. It flows through Sangli and drains the sea in the Bay of Bengal. The river flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga and Bhadra rivers that originate in the Western Ghats. Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna, Yerla, and Musi are some of the other tributaries.
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The Cauvery River System
The Cauvery is also known as Dakshin Ganga. It originates from Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats. It is a famous pilgrimage and tourist place in the Kodagu district of Karnataka. The headwaters of the river are in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka state, and from Karnataka through Tamil Nadu. The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river supports irrigation for agriculture and considered as the means of support of the ancient kingdoms and modern cities of South India.
The river has many tributaries called Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila, Shimsha, Honnuhole, Amaravati, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Noyyal, and Tirtha.
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The Mahanadi River System
The Mahanadi originates from the Satpura Range of central India and it is a river in the eastern India. It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. River drains of the state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa. The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river.
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**Previous Year Question Paper**
1. The Narmada River flows to the west, while most other large peninsular rivers flow to the east. Why? (UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination 2013)
2. It occupies a linear rift valley.
3. It flows between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
4. The land slopes to the west from Central India.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
1. 1 only
2. 2 and 3
3. 1 and 3
4. None
Answer: A
Geography NCERT
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