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q1 Q. Personality
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A. An enduring set of internally based characteristics that create uniqueness and consistency in a person’s thoughts and behaviours. along with an explanation to account for these characteristics
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q2 Q. What Is the Focus of Personality Psychology
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A. Attempts to account for individual differences in thinking. feeling. and behaviours at various levels of analysis that range from biological level (heredity) to group level (cultural differences)
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q3 Q. Traits
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A. Internally based characteristics that make up one’s personality
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q4 Q. What Are the Three Distinct Elements of Personality
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A. Uniqueness. consistency. and explanation
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q5 Q. Uniqueness
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A. Personality traits are specific to each person. even among monozygotic twins each twin has unique personality traits
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q6 Q. Consistency
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A. How an individual behaves over time in similar situations
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q7 Q. Explanation
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A. Personality traits and characteristics provides an explanation to account for the expression of the behaviour
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q8 Q. The Topographical Theory of Mind
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A. Proposed by Sigmund Freud suggesting that the way an individual feels and behaves is the result of three mental systems operating together: conscious mind. preconscious mind. and unconscious mind
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q9 Q. Conscious Mind
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A. All mental activities (thoughts. feelings. motivations. and goals) that a person is aware of and able to freely access
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q10 Q. Preconscious Mind
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A. A level of consciousness that is not in the forefront of one’s thoughts. information can still be retrieved and brought to the conscious awareness
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q11 Q. Unconscious Mind
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A. The largest and most influential part of the mind according to Freud. houses any thoughts. impulses. feelings. memories. needs. desires. and past experiences that influence personality and decision making
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q12 Q. Free Association
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A. A technique of psychoanalysis in which a client is encouraged to freely share thoughts. words. and anything else that comes to mind to gain insight into their unconscious mind
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q13 Q. Manifest Content
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A. In dream analysis. the content of the dream that is remembered without any interpretation (according to Freud. it is the disguised content from our unconscious mind)
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q14 Q. Latent Content
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A. The content of dreams that is expressions of the unconscious mind and a reflection of one’s true feelings. needs. and desires
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q15 Q. Freud’s Structural Model of the Mind
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A. Provides a framework for how both the unconscious and conscious minds develop and operate
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q16 Q. Id
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A. The core component of personality in the unconscious mind that is driven by sexual and aggressive impulses. takes care of basic human needs for survival in addition to satisfying sexual impulses and unrestrained aggression. in constant state of conflict
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q17 Q. Pleasure Principle
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A. The driving force of the id. where the focus is on the fulfillment of sexual urges and aggressive impulses
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q18 Q. Eros
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A. Unconscious sexual impulses
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q19 Q. Thanatos
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A. Death impulse manifested as unrestrained aggression
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q20 Q. Ego
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A. The component of personality that mediates between the id and superego and ultimately decides the course of action. meets the needs of id within the constraints of the real world. works between reality. unconscious impulses of id. and moral limits of superego
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q21 Q. Reality Principle
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A. The driving force of the ego where impulses from the unconscious and id are rejected in their natural form and are expressed in socially acceptable ways
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q22 Q. Superego
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A. One’s moral compass of what is right and wrong. regulated by ego ideal and conscience
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q23 Q. Ego Ideal
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A. Creates a sense of pride when individuals exhibit thoughts and behaviours consistent with a personal moral code
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q24 Q. Conscience
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A. Creates a sense of shame. disapproval. anxiety. or guilt when the individual exhibits thoughts and behaviours that violate the personal moral code
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q25 Q. Reality Anxiety
A. Informs the ego of real danger
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q26 Q. Moral Anxiety
A. Notifies the superego that the ego is considering violating a moral code
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q27 Q. Neurotic Anxiety
A. Warns the ego of the threatening expression of id impulses at the level of conscious awareness
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q28 Q. Defense Mechanisms
A. Ways to avert the expression of id impulses without conscious awareness
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q29 Q. Repression
A. A common defence mechanism where the ego removes the threatening stimulus from conscious awareness (ignoring. trying to forget)
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q30 Q. Reaction Formation
A. A type of defence mechanism where unconscious thoughts and desires are expressed as their opposite
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q31 Q. Projection
A. A type of defence mechanism where one attributes the unacceptable feelings and thoughts to others (easing guilt by believing everyone is doing it too)
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q32 Q. Regression
A. A type of defence mechanism where one reacts to a threatening situation with a baby-like reaction
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q33 Q. Sublimation
A. A type of defence mechanism where one transforms inappropriate impulses and thoughts into socially acceptable or valuable expressions
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q34 Q. Denial
A. A type of defence mechanism where one consciously refuses to perceive that the painful situation exists
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q35 Q. Rationalization
A. A type of defence mechanism where one creates an acceptable explanation to replace the true motives
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q36 Q. Displacement
A. A type of defence mechanism where one shifts the expression of unwanted impulse from a threatening person to a less threatening one
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q37 Q. The Five Psychosexual Stages
A. Proposed by Freud suggesting that personality is developed through five stages. each reflecting the conflict between the id seeking immediate pleasure and society's demand to restrict it
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q38 Q. Erogenous Zone
A. Area of the body that serves as the source of enjoyment
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q39 Q. Fixated
A. According to Freud. if one did not successfully navigate a psychosexual stage. they would become stuck at that stage. affecting personality development and behaviour in adulthood (a person under stress may regress to the stage they're stuck at later in life)
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q40 Q. Oral Stage
A. Birth to 2 years. erogenous zone: mouth. conflict associated with weaning from breast or bottle feeding. successful: develop a willingness to delay gratification. failed: overindulgence in oral-related activities when stressed (overeating. excessive drinking. yelling)
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q41 Q. Anal Stage
A. 2 to 3 years. erogenous zone: anus. conflict associated with toilet training. successful: learning that there is a right time and right place when seeking pleasure. failed: difficulties interacting with others in a civil society due to a tendency to behave inappropriately (making a mess. saying or doing something inappropriate. or overly concerned with neatness)
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q42 Q. Phallic Stage
A. 3 to 6 years. Oedipal complex for boys and Electra complex for girls. erogenous zone: genitals. conflict associated with competition with the same-sex parent for the affection of the opposite-sex parent. successful: understanding appropriate sex-role behaviour patterns. failed: problems with individuals and agencies in positions of power
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q43 Q. Latency Period
A. 7 to 11 years. no erogenous zone. conflict associated with practicing emerging sex-role behaviours during interaction with same-sex peers. successful: knowing that others of the same sex are going through this difficult time of transition. failed: exhibiting extreme sex-role stereotypical behaviour and attitudes. failure to consider the value of those who are different
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q44 Q. Genital Stage
A. 11 years to adulthood. erogenous zone: genitals. conflict associated with the expression of emotional feelings and establishing meaningful relationships with opposite sex. successful: to get pleasure you must give pleasure. failed: unable to form loving and intimate relationships due to inability to provide comfort and support to others
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q45 Q. Collective Unconscious
A. According to Carl Jung. the unconscious mind is interconnected with the expressions of past generations of different people throughout the world (e.g. fear of the unknown. search for novelty. need for emotional contact)
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q46 Q. Archetypes
A. All universal knowledge is stored in the collective unconscious by a variety of thought patterns and behaviour rituals that persist over time. Jung proposed three archetypes important to personality: the persona. the shadow. and the self
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q47 Q. The Persona
A. The tendency for people to develop a certain pattern of behaviour when in public to get along with others (similar to Freud's superego)
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q48 Q. The Shadow
A. Represents the dark and more primitive side of personality (similar to Freud's id)
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q49 Q. The Self
A. The most important archetype. serves to unite all other aspects of the individual's personality (like Freud's ego)
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q50 Q. Striving for Superiority
A. Alfred Adler proposed that at a conscious level. individuals are motivated by efforts to achieve excellence and improvements over our past selves and to act in ways to benefit social interest (primary motivational source of personality)
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q51 Q. Social Interest
A. According to Adler. the strive for superiority should be guided by the principle of social interest. the goal should be to make society better as you make yourself a better person
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q52 Q. Social Security
A. A concept by Karen Horney that describes a sense of feeling safe and loved in our relationships with others
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q53 Q. Basic Anxiety
A. According to Horney. those who don't feel love. who feel unsafe and powerless in their relationships. develop feelings of anxiety
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q54 Q. Basic Hostility
A. According to Horney. people feel anger and hostility when in insecure relationships. particularly when one's significant other makes no effort to forge a secure environment
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q55 Q. What Are the Three Basic Strategies Individuals Use to Reduce Basic Anxiety According to Horney
A. Moving toward people. away from people. and against people
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q56 Q. Moving Toward People
A. Individuals do and say certain things with the goal of attracting others to like and take care of them
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q57 Q. Moving Away from People
A. Individual withdraws emotionally and uses behavioural avoidance to protect themselves from getting hurt
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q58 Q. Moving Against People
A. Individual tries to emotionally harm others to prevent others from hurting them
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q59 Q. How Do the Perspectives of Humanistic Psychology Differ from Freudians
A. Humanism focuses on uniqueness and personal growth. based on the assumption that expressions of personality are motivated by internal desire for self-improvement which operates at the conscious level. Freudians focus on the influences of the unconscious
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q60 Q. Self-Concept
A. According to Carl Rogers. is how someone perceives their unique set of characteristics. skills. qualities. and abilities
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q61 Q. Self-Esteem
A. According to Carl Rogers. is how positively or negatively a person evaluates him or herself based on life experiences
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q62 Q. Actual Self
A. According to Rogers. the form of self that a person is currently at
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q63 Q. Ideal Self
A. According to Rogers. the form of self that a person strives to become
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q64 Q. Conditional Positive Regard
A. Serves to stifle personal growth by placing limits on the acceptance people give to others (love and acceptance of a person are contingent upon their actions and behaviours)
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q65 Q. Unconditional Positive Regard
A. Based on the inherent goodness of people and the need for unwavering love and acceptance. Rogers believed individuals are more willing to take risks and test the limits of their abilities to establish a more accurate sense of self without fearing the judgement of significant others
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q66 Q. Self-System
A. According to Albert Bandura. it is a set of cognitions that people use to observe. evaluate. and regulate their behaviour in different situations
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q67 Q. Self-Efficacy
A. According to Bandura. is the belief about one's ability to successfully perform in a given situation
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q68 Q. Locus of Control
A. According to Julian Rotter. is a personality construct that represents the degree to which individuals believe that they are in control of their outcomes and experiences
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q69 Q. External Locus of Control
A. Individuals who believe they lack control over the events in their lives
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q70 Q. Internal Locus of Control
A. Individuals who believe they control what happens in their current life as well as their future
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q71 Q. Learned Helplessness
A. One of the contributing factors of external locus of control. individuals believe their ability to prevent unpleasant events in their life is outside of their control
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q72 Q. Delay of Gratification
A. The willingness to forgo a smaller but immediate reward for a larger reward in the future ("willpower")
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q73 Q. Marshmallow Test
A. Conducted by Walter Mischel to test children's ability to delay gratification
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q74 Q. Biological Perspectives
A. This perspective on personality assumes that certain biological factors and processes serve to influence the underlying operation and expression of personality. including: behavioural genetics. neurological perspective. and evolutionary perspectives
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q75 Q. Behavioural Genetics Perspective
A. Examines how certain inherited biological factors (genes) interact with environmental factors (family environment or socioeconomic status) to determine the expression of certain personality characteristics
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q76 Q. Twin Studies
A. One of the most common methods used to determine genetic contribution. allows researchers to determine the proportion of a characteristic or behaviour that is due to genetics (nature) or upbringing (nurture)
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q77 Q. Concordance Rate
A. The degree to which a characteristic. trait. or disease that occurs in one twin similarly occurs in the second twin
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q78 Q. Neurological Perspective
A. Examines the extent to which various physiological factors (hormones and neurotransmitters) and brain activity (arousal and inhibition) determine the expression of certain personality characteristics
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q79 Q. Testosterone
A. A male sex hormone associated with dominance. aggression. persistence. sensation-seeking. and high-risk behaviours
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q80 Q. Serotonin
A. An inhibitory neurotransmitter associated with mood. anxiety. appetite and digestion. sleeping. and other functions. also linked to willingness to engage in thrill-seeking behaviours
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q81 Q. Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)'s Connection with Personality
A. Acts as a filter. responsible for regulating arousal. and linked with the personality dimension of introversion (higher level of arousal) and extraversion (lower level of arousal)
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q82 Q. Evolutionary Perspective
A. Uses evolutionary theory to account for differences in personality. which are adaptive responses to survival and reproductive success
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q83 Q. What Are the Two Personality Characteristics Associated with Survival
A. Conscientiousness and optimism
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q84 Q. Conscientiousness
A. Makes individuals more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviours and avoid risks
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q85 Q. Optimism
A. Makes individuals more likely to have fewer symptoms and quicker recovery when dealing with medical concerns
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q86 Q. What Are the Two Personality Characteristics Negatively Associated with Longevity
A. Hostile Type A personality and neuroticism
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q87 Q. Type A Personality
A. Tend to suppress their feelings of emotional distress. frustration. and anger. thereby increasing the effects of these emotions on their overall health
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q88 Q. Neuroticism
A. Tend to be overly moody. unstable. and anxious (general state of hyperarousal and tension)
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q89 Q. Functionally Infertile Individuals (FII)
A. Those for whom reproduction is possible but rates of reproductive success are low
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q90 Q. Personality Characteristics Correlating with Females with High FII
A. Harm avoidance: results in less frequent sex. low cooperativeness: creating difficulties with potential sex partners. higher scores on depression and anxiety: resulting in negative emotions being associated with sex
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q91 Q. Personality Characteristics Associated with Males with Low FII
A. Self confidence. extraversion. and social assertiveness
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q92 Q. Traits
A. Terms we use to describe our own personality and of others that we assume to be stable over time and across situations (make individuals unique)
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q93 Q. Factor Analysis
A. A statistical technique that can determine the number of separate constructs being assessed in a given measurement instrument. for personality measures it analyzes responses on a survey and finds items with shared variance that have high inter-item correlations
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q94 Q. Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
A. A trait-based personality measure that was developed from a list of personality traits using factor analysis
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q95 Q. Factor Analysis
A. A statistical technique that uses pattern association to group together many items in a test based on their similarity in content (related items are grouped together into a set of major factors)
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q96 Q. Three-Factor Theory
A. Proposed by Eysenck. suggesting that personality consists of three trait dimensions: extraversion/introversion. neuroticism/emotional stability. and psychoticism/impulse control
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q97 Q. Extraverted Individuals
A. Socially oriented. outgoing. adventure-seeking. and optimistic
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q98 Q. Introverted Individuals
A. Tend to avoid social situations. enjoy time alone. have a calm and quiet demeanor. prefer quiet time (report that they feel drained from social gatherings)
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q99 Q. High Degree of Neuroticism
A. The tendency to be touchy. restless. moody. and anxious. associated with increased level of activity in the sympathetic nervous system (low degree of neuroticism = carefree. even-tempered. and calm)
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q100 Q. High Degree of Psychoticism
A. The tendency to be impulsive. cold. aggressive. unconcerned with the rights of others. and have antisocial characteristics. linked to high levels of testosterone and low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO)
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q101 Q. Five-Factor Model (FFM)
A. Identified five distinct components of personality often referred to as "the Big 5": openness. conscientiousness. extraversion/sociability. agreeableness. and neuroticism (OCEAN)
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q102 Q. Openness in FFM
A. High level: artistic. insightful. and intelligent. low level: common-place. shallow. and having narrow interests
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q103 Q. Conscientiousness in FFM
A. High level: deliberate. efficient. and precise. low level: careless. frivolous. and irresponsible
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q104 Q. Extraversion/Sociability in FFM
A. High level: adventurous. assertive. dominant. and sociable. low level: quiet. reserved. retiring. and shy
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q105 Q. Agreeableness in FFM
A. High level: cooperative. generous. and sympathetic. low level: cruel. quarrelsome. and unfriendly
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q106 Q. Neuroticism in FFM
A. High level: anxious. self-pitying. and temperamental. low level: calm. contented. and stable
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q107 Q. Personality Assessment
A. Examines various aspects of personality with the goal of helping people better understand themselves and others
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q108 Q. Reliability
A. The consistency of a measure (test-retest reliability)
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q109 Q. Validity
A. The accuracy of a measure. as assessed by the degree to which you are actually measuring what you think you are measuring
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q110 Q. Predictive Validity
A. Documents the extent to which the scores from the items on the test can predict the behaviour it is proposing to measure
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q111 Q. Psychometrician
A. An individual who has expertise in tests and measures and who understands the various measures of reliability and validity
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q112 Q. Concurrent Validity
A. Concurrent means simultaneous assessment. you would administer the personality measure and simultaneously assess the criterion
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q113 Q. Observational Assessment Techniques
A. Measure personality by using specific guidelines for recording what individuals do. think. and feel in naturalistic and controlled settings
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q114 Q. Behavioural Observation
A. Recording behaviours as they occur while remaining as unobtrusive as possible (recording actual behaviours)
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q115 Q. Self-Monitoring Techniques
A. Individuals record the frequency that they engage in particular behaviours
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q116 Q. Thought Sampling Techniques
A. Individuals record the nature and frequency of the thoughts they have in certain situations
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q117 Q. Objective Self-Report Techniques
A. Measure personality by linking the responses individuals provide to a series of standardized items contained in personality tests
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q118 Q. Fixed Format
A. Objective measures that require test takers to select a response from one of those provided
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q119 Q. Single-Dimension Tests
A. Relatively short. allow the testing professional to focus on the specific dimension of interest
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q120 Q. Multiple-Dimension Personality
A. Measure more than one dimension at a time
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q121 Q. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
A. An objective personality measure that assesses both personality traits and the presence of mental illness
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q122 Q. MMPI-2
A. Assesses 10 trait-like clinical dimensions of personality and contains 567 test questions to which individuals must respond in a fixed format by selecting from three response alternatives: true. false. or cannot say (originally designed to help diagnose individuals suffering from major psychological disorders)
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q123 Q. The Cannot Say Scale
A. Assesses the degree to which the individual is trying to conceal unfavourable information about personal tendencies
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q124 Q. The Lie Scale (L)
A. Identifies the extent to which the person is trying to respond in a socially desirable manner
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q125 Q. The Infrequency Scale (F)
A. Monitors if the respondent does not seem to be taking the test seriously
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q126 Q. The Correction Scale (K)
A. Examines the possibility of the individual responding in a defensive manner
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q127 Q. Projective Techniques
A. The underlying logic is that the meaning the person projects onto the ambiguous test stimuli reflects the individual's unconscious feelings. needs. and desires. ambiguous stimuli may be an inkblot (Rorschach Inkblot Test) or a drawing of an ambiguous situation (TAT). no clear answer (lack reliability)
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q128 Q. Association Techniques
A. Present a test stimulus to an individual and then ask them to respond with the first word. thought. or feeling that comes to mind
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q129 Q. Rorschach Inkblot Test
A. A form of projective assessment where the individual is shown 10 different inkblots and asked to report what they perceive the inkblot to be
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q130 Q. Major Criticism of Using the Rorschach
A. Overall lack of reliability and validity. the seemingly unlimited number of possible responses to the inkblots makes a consistent pattern of interpretation difficult across raters
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q131 Q. Construction Techniques
A. Another form of projective assessment. involves the individual creating something (a story) from the test stimuli (most famous example: TAT)
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q132 Q. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A. Individual is shown a series of 17 cards containing an ambiguous photograph and asked to complete a story for each photograph. which is then analyzed to make judgements about the individual's personality based on common emotional and psychological themes
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q133 Q. What Is the Reason for the Lack of Support for TAT
A. The administrator's disregard for standardized methods of interpretation. relying solely on intuition rather than a tested means of analysis
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q134 Q. Electrophysiological Measures
A. Linking certain bodily processes (heart rate. muscle tension. and skin conductance - galvanized skin response GSR) to different dimensions of personality
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q135 Q. Biochemical Measures
A. Involve linking an assortment of biochemical processes such as neurotransmitters. hormones. and genetic characteristics to different dimensions of personality
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q136 Q. Cortical Measures
A. Linking certain levels of electrical activity in different regions of the brain with different dimensions of personality
psya02
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