1
Q
Personality Definition
A
An individuals characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour, together with the psychological mechanisms (hidden or not) behind those patterns
- A good intuitive definition… but too overarching
- An integrated view is hard, as personality is too broad, hence different approaches are used
2
Q
The Different Approaches to Studying Personality
A
- Psychoanalytical
- Behavioural
- Cognitive
- Trait
- Biological
- Humanistic
2
Q
Sigmund Freud
A
- Austrian neurologist
- Founder of psychoanalytical approach
2
Q
Psychoanalytical approach
A
Approach to studying personality by studying the unconscious mind, childhood experiences.
- Found by Freud
2
Q
What Influences Personality According to the Psychoanalytical Theory?
A
Balance between id, superego, and ego
Example:
- Overexpressed id? –> reckless, impulsive
- Overexpressed superego? –> preachy, holier-than-thou
- Well balanced is the key!
3
Q
Three Parts of the Mind – Psychoanalytical Theory
A
Id: Unconscious and focused on pleasure, avoiding pain
- Earliest part of mind to develop (right from birth)
- No sense of right or wrong
- No sense of patience
- Resides in unconscious mind, but we feel its desires consciously
- Powered by libido and thanatos
Superego: Mostly unconscious, and focused on morality
- Develops around age 4
- Encompasses values we learn from society (moral standards of society)
- Doing the right thing!
- Small part is conscious… (actively aware of what is morally correct and if our behaviour aligns w/ it; immoral vs moral)
- Also in preconscious (info currently not in awareness but can easily be brought to awareness)
Ego: Rational and mindful of reality
- Develops as a toddler
- Finds compromise between id’s desire and superego’s morality
- Conscious (aware of real world) and unconscious (keeps forbidden desires away)
- Most accessible to consciousness!!!!
- Leads to behaviours that yield pleasure over long-term (rather short-term)
- Also in preconscious
Check out Freud’s Iceberg
3
Q
Freudian Slips
Psychoanalytical
A
One may accidentally say the wrong word, but the mistake may reveal an unconscious thought, feeling, or desire
- Example: Calling your teacher mom is not an accident, but you actually see her as a maternal figure
3
Q
Psychosexual Stages
Psychoanalytical theory
A
- Unconscious desires and conflicts in childhood influence adult personality
- Series of psychosexual stages of development, marked by particular challenges/awarenesses
- Adverse events during a stage of development –> unconscious mind is stuck in that stage
- Leads to specific lasting changes in personality
- Only small minority have no fixation, successive development of all stages
Example: Fixation in oral stage (centred around feeding)
- Individuals grow up to have particular personality traits associated w/ the mouth (overtalkative, smoker, etc.)
4
Q
Dreams
Psychoanalytical
A
Manifest content: What dreams are literally about.
Latent content: Hidden meanings that speak to some desire or concern we are not aware of.
5
Q
The Balancing Act
A
The ego managing the conflict between the id, superego, and reality
- Ego acts as the mediator!
What happens if it’s not balanced?
- Differences in personality
- Dominant id: impulsive, aggressive
- Dominant superego: perfectionistic, religious
6
Q
Anxiety’s Influence on Cognition
Psychoanalytical
A
- Anxiety is a strongly adversive mental state
- Freud believed drove cognition
- Reducing anxiety in an anxiety-inducting situation by mentally changing the perception of the situation (by the ego)
- Reality distorted into tolerable form
- Basis behind defense mechanisms
7
Q
Psychological Defence Mechanisms
Psychoanalytical definition
A
- Automatic mental strategies that function to relieve us of anxiety
- Distracts us from stressors or by diguising their true nature
- Stressors may be external… mostly internal (id’s troubling desires)
8
Q
Five Defensive Mechanisms
psychoanalytical
A
- Denial
- Repression
- Rationalization
- Projection
- Sublimation
9
Q
Denial: Defensive Mechanism
A
Refusing to accept information that’s presented to you
- Rejection of the facts of a situation
- Ego reduces anxiety by insisting it’s not happening
- Reduces anxiety from internal stressors (denying you don’t want something when you do, deep down)
10
Q
Repression: Defense Mechanism
A
Prevents information from being consciously processed
- Forgetting traumtic events
- Repressed thoughts have huge impact on id, superego, and therefore behaviour
- Repressed thoughts are processed when ego becomes aware of them
11
Q
Rationalization: Defense Mechanism
A
Seemingly logical arguements are used to justify behaviour that is really motivated by unsavory impulses (id)
- Example: Playing video games as a means to “relax” when you have shit to do
- Logical train of thought follows a DECISION to do something
12
Q
Projection: Defense Mechanism
A
Labels others as having your own unconscious views…
Assuming others’ feelings reflect one’s own unconscious id impulses
- One takes anxiety inducing unconscious thoughts and assumes that these are reflective of someone elses feelings
- Example: You dislike your classmate and are rude to them, in order to reduce guilt, project feelings! You believe that THEY dislike YOU
13
Q
Sublimation: Defence Mechanism
A
individual finds socially acceptable outlet for desires of the id that would otherwise be problematic.
- Mature, employed by well-adjusted, healthy adults
- Example: Contact sports (hockey, football) sublimate unconscious aggression into socially accepted game
- Product of well functioning mind: ego satisfies id and superego
- Freud believed that all the accomplishments of civilization (art, music, literature) are a result of unconscious urges being sublimated into helpful outlets
14
Q
Penis Envy
A
- Driving force in a girls psychological development
- Proposed by psychoanalytical theory by Freud, ofc
15
Q
Behavioural Approach
limitations?
A
Focuses on observable behaviour and the environmental factors influencing them.
- How behaviour is shaped by rewards and punishments
- Claiming that internal mental processes are unmeasurable, hence studying them is unscientific
- We are born as blank slates! (no personality type)
- Environment teaches us to act –> Determines what our personality is
- Contingency pairings, rewards, punishments shape personality
LIMITED: Does not explore internal mental processes
16
Q
Effect of Reward and Punishment on Personality
behavioural theory
A
- Can have long-lasting effects
- Reinforcements and punishment by parents shape you into the person you are
Example: Bullying
- Child may be outgoing and eccentric prior to bullying
- Gets bullied –> learns that outgoing nature is undesirable –> withdrawing from social interaction
- Experience of bullying cause lasting change in behaviour
17
Q
Cognitive Approach
4 main components
A
Focuses on how our cognitions, in addition to conditioning, shape our behaviour
- Accounts for internal mental processes in the attempt to understand personality
- Targets the limitation of the behavioural approach
Four main components:
- Observation: Observing the actions of others
- Modelling: Modelling the observed actions, especially when there is positive reinforcement
- Cognition: Weighing pros and cons of behaviour, consider capabilities, and select if we want to do something
18
Q
Pros and Cons of Behavioural Approach
A
PROS:
- Establishing psych as objective science
- Measurement and manipulation
- Considers environmental influences
CONS:
- Reductive: can personality be reduced to JUST conditioned behaviours?
- Overlooks role of genes in determining behaviour
19
Q
Pros and Cons of Cognitive Approach
A
PROS:
- Addresses reductionist tendencies of behavioural model
CONS:
- Does not account for biological factors
20
Trait
Personality characteristics that is consistent, stable, and varies person to person
* Combination and interaction of various traits create the trait
21
Trait Approach
Emphasizes, identifies, quantifies stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and emotions to compare and predict personalities.
* Quantifies psychological functioning
* Combination and interaction of various traits create the person we are
* DISTINCT traits want to be studied, synonyms are a problem
* Manually grouping similar words and statistical analysis were used to determine
22
The Big Five (Trait Model)
* Openness
* Conscientiousness
* Extroversion
* Agreeableness
* Neuroticism
Each of these traits exist on a spectrum!
* Extreme scores in any trait can be problematic
* Extremely universal – found in over 50 cultures
| OCEAN
23
Openness
* Level of creativity and adventure
High: Likes new experiences, inquisitive, creative endeavours
Low: Traditino, routine, change is difficult
24
Conscientiousness
* Level of thoughtfulness and diligence
High: Self-control, concrete plans, goal oriented, neat
* Tend to out live people are low in conscientiousness
Low: Casual, unscheduled, unrestricted
25
Extroversion
* Level of sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking
High: Outgoing, energized by company, talkative
Low: Reserved, introspective, enjoy spending alone time
26
Agreeableness
* Ability to put others needs above their own
High: Compassionate, polite, well-liked, trusting
Low: Antagonistic, competitive, secretive, suspicious
27
Neuroticism
* Level of emotional stability and resilience
High (not desirable): Hypersensitive, anxious, self-conscious, insecure
Low: Relaxed, self-assured, stable
28
The Big Five Over Time
* Big five traits are usually stable over time
Studies of AVERAGE values:
* Extraversion: Children have higher average levels than adults
* Conscientiousness: Children have lower averages than adults (lower in teenage years)
29
Drawbacks of the Trait Approach
* Does not account for how personality varies in response to situational context (people may act differently in diff situations)
* Does not address how individual differences emerge, only talks about existing differences
30
Biological Approach
Explores influence of genes, brain structures, evolution, and neurochemistry on our personality
* Examines brain structure, neurotransmitter levels, and genes contributions to personality
* Considers evolutionary origins of personality variations (using some help from trait theory)
* Brain regions, neurotransmitters, etc. are just correlational studies (=/= causation)
31
Amygdala in Personality
* Amygdala is associated w/ anxiety and fear
* Highly active in SHY and PESSIMISTIC individuals
32
Frontal Lobe in Personality
* Individual variation in left and right brain
* High LEFT frontal lobe activity --> Emotional stability, optimism, anger
* High RIGHT frontal lobe activity --> neuroticism
33
Neurotransmitters in Personality
* Big five traits can be divided into 2 groups associated w/ a particular neurotransmitter:
DOPAMINE: Extroversion, openness
* Related to brain plasticity
SEROTONIN: Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (high ser. --> high high LOW)
* Related to cognitive stability
34
Heritability of Personality
The degree to which genetic difference correlate with variations in traits.
* Big five traits are all substantially heritable
* Openness is the most heritable, agreeableness is the least
* NOTE: Does not equate "openness" genes....
35
Evolution of Personality
* Personality traits have adaptive significance
* High extroversion beneficial for finding mates, social interactions
* Moderate neuroticism beneficial for responding to stressors
* Average big five trait expression is not random but rather evolved
* Individual variation
36
Rorschach Inkblot Test
* Participants look at an inkblot image and report what image they see
* Based on what they see --> Their personality/unconscious
PROS:
* Fun
* Can be used to break the ice in therapy
CONS:
* Lacks scientific validity and reliablity + timely and expensive
37
Self-Report Personality Measures
* Personality assessments involving asking questions about participant, and participant answering
* Very common, cheap, easy to administer, reasonably accurate
* DRAWBACKS: Purpose behind questions are obvious, **social desirability bias** (wanting to be percieved in a better light), you may be unaware of own personality traits
38
Behavioural Assessment
* Experimental manipulation to elicit the action of certain personality traits (changing room temp to see if participant would ask to turn up the heat --> assertiveness)
* Performed as a proper experiment (fairly accurate representation of behaviour)
CONS:
* Difficult to implement and dependent of situations
39
Myers-Briggs Personality Test
* Personality test that assigns individuals in 16 diff personality types represented by 4 letter code
* Each personality views the world in a different way
PROS:
* Popular, widely used assessment
CONS:
* Low reliability and validity
40
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
* Most widely used clinical assessment of personality
* Diagnoses personality problems and mental health disorder
* Consists of only T/F questions
* Questions do not probe a specific aspect of personality... researchers created questions and used a clinically diagnosed population to determine which answers were most likely chosen for personality type of interest
* Can also tell if an individual is lying and inconsistent
41
Hippocrates Theory of Personality
Based on the four humours: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile
* Excess of one humour caused someones personality
* Excess blood: sanguine (cheerful, optimism)
* Excess yellow bile: choleric (angry, excitable)
* Excess phlegm: phegmatic (calm, peaceful)
* Excess black bile: melancholic (somber, pessimistic)
42
Psychological Triad
Three essential components of psychology
* How people think, behave, feel
43
Tripartite Structure
The three components that comprise of an individuals mind:
Id, ego, superego
* Psychoanalytical theory
44
Reaction Formation: Defense Mechanism
Anxiety-producing thoughts and impulses are replaced with their opposite
* Example: Although a man wants a girlfriend, he is unable to get one, so to reduce that anxiety, he is misogynistic
45
Intellectualization: Defense Mechanism
Anxiety-producing and threatening situations are translated into intellectual terms devoid of emotions
* Example: Becoming detached, emotionless when describing death, "The presence of edema indicated to us her time was near"
46
Displacement: Defence Mechanism
Forbidden impulses are re-directed to a safer target
* Example: Someone who had a difficult day at work goes home and fights with their partner
47
Libido and Thanatos
| Psychoanalytical
Libido: Energy related to instinctual drives relating to pleasure
Thanatos: Energy related to destructive tendencies
48
Little Albert Experiment
* Testing blank-slate philosphy
* Baseline: Baby presented with many stimuli w/ no fear
* Experiment: Baby shown white rat and loud sound played to cause fear
* Classical conditioning occured between white objects and loud noises, causing CR of fear
* Watson had conditioned a phobia
49
Self-efficacy
In social cognition theory
* Our own perception of our own capabilities
* High self-efficacy: I pick up new skills quickly (More motivated, more effort, overcomes challenges)
* Low self-efficacy: This is too difficult for me (gives up when difficult)
50
Reciprocal Determinism
Continuous interaction between behaviour, cognitive factors, and environmental factors (see workbook)
51
Humanistic Approach
Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, inherit goodness of individuals
* Response to psychoanalytical and behavioural approaches (which were overwhelmingly negative)
* Philosophical stance that places emphasis on goodness of people, values
* All people are fundamentally good
* People who act in ways that are not good, this is deviation from good state
* "Self actualization" is the attempt to reach one's full potential, DRIVES PERSONALITY
* Maslow's hierarchy of needs
* Clearly defined conscious goals guide decisions
52
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Bottom to top: physiological (survival) --> safety (health) --> love (connection) --> esteem (self-worth) -- self-actualization (potential)
* Various factors that motivate an individual's behaviour
* Lower needs need to be met before one could pursue higher needs
53
Self-actualization
* Represents a person's potential
* Most people do not become self-actualized but rather experience peaks of it
* Creative needs, personal growth, drive to feel fulfilled
54
The Minnesota Study
* Study on monozygotic and dizygotic twins raised together or apart
* Identical twins were found to have similar personalities despite being raised apart
* Indicates that personality is somewhat heritable
55
Temperament
* Biological approach believes in an innate part of personality from birth
* Patterns of behaviour and emotional response that are influenced by genes
* "nature"
In regards to babies...
* Easy temperament: Adapts to situatiosn well, good mood, mild reactions
* Slow-to-warm-up temperament: Approaches world cautiously, shy
* Difficult temperament: Incredibly fussy, crying, difficult to soothe
56
Three Criteria for Personality Traits
Consistency: Locations
Stability: Ages
Individual Differences: Certain individuals have more or less of this trait
57
Projective Hypothesis
If a person is asked todescribe or interpret ambiguous stimuli, their responses will be influenced by nonconscious needs, feelings, and experiences
* Theory behind rorschach inkblot test
* Psychoanalytical theory
58
Objective Measures of Personality
Interviews, observations, questionnaire
59
Objective Tests
* Most common approach to assessing personality
* Standard items
* Standardized scoring
60
Self-Reporting
Individual fills out answers themselves
PROS:
* Capitalizes on self-knowledge
* Simple, easy, cost effective
CONS:
* High stakes testing (test made to make decisions about high impact outcomes like grad, career, etc)
* Self-enhancement bias (indv evaluate themselves more favorably than others)
* Reference group effect (indv evaluate themselves based on the standards of a group)
61
Informant Report
Ask someone who knows an individual to describe their personality
PROS:
* Valid
* Better sample of behaviour
CONS:
* Limited access
* Sibling contrast effect (Siblings perceived as more different than they actually are due to exaggerations)
* Letter of recommendation effect
Psych 1XX3
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Decks in class (11)
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