1
Q
What is Personality?
A
Personality can be defined as the relatively stable, permanent characteristics that are unique to an individual and influence the way we think feel and behave
2
Q
What is a Trait Theory?
A
- A personality trait is a characteristic that endures (lasts) over time and cross different situations
- Trait theories of personality focus on meaning, identifying and describing individual differences in terms of traits
- Focus’ on what is different not what is the same
- Behaviour can be predicted based on traits
3
Q
What are the Main Assumptions of the Trait Theory?
A
- That Personality traits are relatively stable and therefore predictable over time
- Personality traits are relatively stable across different situations
- Traits take into account that personality consists of a number of different traits and that some people have more or less of particular traits
- Some traits are more closely interrelated than other traits and occur together e.g extraverison and openness
4
Q
Explain Mccrae and Costa’s Trait Theory?
A
- Contained the 5 factor model that organises all personality traits
- Personality traits are described on a continuum showing either end of the trait
- Openness, consciousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism
5
Q
What does the Trait Openness refer to?
A
- Described as to the extent to which a person is imaginative
- Describes a personal preference for variety of activities over strict routine
- Those who score high prefer novelty and those who score low prefer routine
6
Q
What does the Trait Consciousness refer to?
A
- Ones tendency towards self discipline, competence, thoughtfulness, achievement striving
- Individuals who score high prefer planned rather than spontaneous behaviour and are often organised and hard working
- Those who score low take a more relaxed approach and are spontaneous and may be disorganised
7
Q
What does the Trait Extraversion refer to?
A
- An individual who scores high is characterised by high energy, positive emotions, talkativeness, assertiveness and sociable
- Those score low on extraversion prefer smaller solitude in smaller groups and prefer activities alone
- People who score high are more likely to take part in adventure and risky sports
8
Q
What does the Trait Agreeableness refer to?
A
- Measures ones tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonist towards others
- People who score low tend to be described as rude and uncooperative
9
Q
What does the Trait Neuroticism refer to?
A
- High Neuroticism is characterised by the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, depression
- Refers to an individuals degree of emotional stability and impulse control
- People high in neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterised as angry, impulsive and hostile
- People low tend to be calm and tempered
10
Q
What are the Strengths of Mccrae and Costas theory?
A
- Empirically tested and scientifically validated
- Provide useful descriptions of personality and its structures
- Provided the foundation of valued and reliable personality devices
11
Q
What are some limitations of Mccrae and Costa’s Theory?
A
- Can lead people to accept and use oversimplified classifications and descriptions
- Underestimate socio cultural influences on behaviour
- Trait theories don’t show how personalities change over time (Mischel 1968)
- Traits are often poor predicators of behaviour, may not behave in the in every situation (Kendra)
12
Q
What is the Humanistic Theory of Personality?
A
- Humanistic theories emphasises the uniqueness of each individual and positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfil their lives (free will and choice)
- Based on the assumption that all people are born good and that individuals strive to reach their full potential
- Believe that a healthy personality is the result of a person achieving their full potential
13
Q
What is the Phenomenal approach?
A
- Refers to each individuals unique perception of his or her own world - everything the person is perceiving at a particular time
- According to Rogers theory this is what determines behaviour.
14
Q
What did Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987) Suggest?
A
- Believed that all people are born good, with considerable potential and that each person has the ability to achieve their full potential as an individual if they are able to overcome a series of hurdles
- Emphasised the importance of free will, we are all individuals who freely choose to behave in whatever way we desire and act according to that choice
- There are three main factors influencing self actualisation
15
Q
What are the factors influencing Self Actualisation?
A
- The way others treat them (whether they accepted or rejected by others, receive love)
- How they view themselves (their self concept)
- How effectively they can deal with negative influences in there lives that cause anxiety or conflict
16
Q
What is Self Concept in Rogers Theory?
A
- Self Concept refers to all the perceptions and beliefs an individual has about themselves including their nature, unique qualities and their typical behaviour
- Rogers believed that childhood is a critical time for the development of personality and the social relationships a child experiences during that time have a lasting effect on development of their self concept
17
Q
How does others influence the development of Self Concept?
A
People who are important to us assist in our self actualisation in three important ways:
- By feeling genuine: being honest and open with their feelings towards us
- By being accepting: by valuing us for what we are regardless of our short comings so that we experience unconditional positive regard
- By encouraging our ‘blossoming’ by being empathetic, being able to put themselves in our position and fully understand from our point
18
Q
What makes a Well Adjusted Personality?
A
A well adjusted and happy individual is someone who is congruent (match) and are fairly similar in:
- Whose self image (the person you think you are)
- Ideal self (the person you want to be)
- True self ( the person you actually are)
19
Q
How is Personality measured according to Carol Rogers?
A
- Humanistic Theorists do not believe you can measure or rate personality
- They do however use a Q sort test
- Use a client centred approach to therapy (from the patients perception)
20
Q
What was Maslow’s Humanistic approach?
A
- Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs, when one is fulfilled, a person seeks to fulfil the next
- Maslow noted that only 1 in 100 people become fully self actualised because are society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs
- Created the Hierarchy of Needs
21
Q
What was the Hierarchy of Needs?
A
- A 5 stage model which can be divided into basic and psychological needs which ensures survival (e.g physiological, saftey, love and esteem) and growth needs (self actualisation)
- The deficiency of basic needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet also the need to fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied
22
Q
What are the five basic levels of Maslow’s hierarchy and what do they ensure?
A
- Biological and Physiological Needs - air, food, water, warmth, rest, sleep
- Safety Needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability
- Love and Belongingness - friendship, intimacy, affection and love from family, friends and romantic relationship
- Esteem Needs - achievement, mastery, prestige, independence status, self respect, worth
- Self Actualisation Needs - releasing personal potential, self fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences
23
Q
What does reaching Self Actualisation refer to?
A
- Refers to the persons desire for self fulfilment, namely to the tendency for the individual to become actualised in what they are potentially
- The form these needs will take of course vary greatly between person to person
- Characteristics of self actualisation include; accepting themselves and others for what they are, problem centred (not self centred)
24
Q
What are the Strengths and Limitations of Maslow’s Theory?
A
Strengths ~ Offers a positive approach to understanding personality, give a complete (but not necessarily accurate) picture of how the healthy personality develops, taking ownership is very empowering and a positive aspect of humanistic theory
Limitations~ Unrealistic, does not recognise evil in people, offers simplistic and romantic ideas about personality few can be measured scientifically, focuses on self fulfilment which can be negative, lower needs do not always have to be met before moving up the hierarch
25
What was Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory?
- Modified his 1977 Social Learning Theory and in 1986 renamed it the Social Cognitive Theory as a better description on how we learn from social experiences
- Believed that our personality is the total of all the cognitive concepts we have acquired through experience and what we bring to a situation
- Theory emphasised observational learning (modelling and imitation)
- Learning is a function of observing, retaining and replicating behaviour observed on others, modeling occurs when one observes the behaviour and consequences of another to influence themselves
26
What are Bandura's four Meditational processes?
1. Attention - Noticing the behaviour
2. Retention - Remembering the behaviour (retain)
3. Reproduction - Ability to perform the behaviour (reproduce)
4. Motivation/reinforcement - the will to perform the behaviour, (influenced by rewards)
27
What is Observed Behaviour in Bandura's Theory Influenced by?
1. Personal - Whether the individual has High or Low Self Efficacy towards the behaviour (ie get the learner to believe in his or her personal abilities to correctly complete a behaviour)
2. Behavioural - The response and individual receives after they perform a behaviour
3. Environmental - Aspects of the environment setting that influence the individuals ability to successfully complete a behaviour
28
What is Reciprocal Determinism?
- Suggests that individuals function as a result of a Dynamic and Reciprocal Interaction among their behaviour, environment and personal characteristics
- All three interact with each other, therefore a change in one will influence the others as well
29
What is Self Efficacy?
- The degree to which you are sure if your own ability and capability to manage and be effective in meeting the demands of particular situations
- A persons belief in his or her ability to succeed in particular situations
- Bandura described these beliefs as determintss of how people think feel and behave and can impact behaviour motivation
30
What is the role of Self Efficacy?
- Bandura and others have found that an individuals self efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks and challenges are approached
- People with strong self efficacy; view challenging problems as tasks to be mastered, form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities and recover quickly from set backs
- Those with low self efficacy; avoid challenging tasks, believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities, focus on personal failings and negative outcomes and quickly lose confidence
31
How is Self Efficacy Developed?
1. Mastery Experience - which is a process that helps an individual achieve simple tasks that lead to more complex activities
2. Social Modelling - provides and identical model that shows the process that accomplish a behaviour
3. Improving physical and emotional states - refers to ensuring a persons rested and relaxed prior to attempting a new behaviour, the less relaxed and less the patient the more likely they wont attain the goal behaviour
4. Verbal Persuasion - providing encouragement for a person to complete a task or achieve a certain behaviour
32
What was Mischel's Theory of Cognitive Development?
- Personality results from a TWO WAY INTERACTION between a persons characteristics and the environment (reciprocal determinism)
- People's characteristics influence the kind of environment in which they find themselves which influence and modify people's characteristics
33
Describe Mischel's Personality Signature's?
- Suggested that Consistency would be found in distinctive but stable patterns of "if then" situations, if x situations occurs then y behaviour may result, rather than defining people by there traits (he is an irritative person) he argued that we should factor in the importance of the context, (he is an irritative person when talked to...). People are different in different situations
- Emphasised the importance if physical, social and environmental forces in shaping behaviour
34
What is Self Regulation according to Mischel?
- Refers to the ability to set and work towards goals
- Described as will power, often relates to ability of delay gratification - the concept of denying ones self a reward in the present to get a better reward in the future
35
What are Mischel's variables used to predict Behaviour?
1. Competencies ~ Our intellectual abilities as well as social skills
2. Cognitive Strategies ~ The different perceptions of a specific event, for instance what may "threatening" for you may be "challenging" to another person
3. Expectancies ~ The expected results of different behaviours that are realised by the person inside his mind
4. Subjective Values ~ The respective values of each possible outcomes of various behaviours
5. Self Regulatory Systems ~ The groups of rules and standards that people adapt to in order to regulate their behaviour
36
What are the Strengths and Limitations of Mischel's Theory?
Strengths ~ Well grounded with empirical evidence (unlike humanistic theories), widely applicable, scientifically robust, explains learning and the influence on the self and how these affect and are affected by situations
Limitations ~ Ignores the effects of the unconscious, doesn't look at irrational behaviours
