1
Q
What are some historical influences on the trait approach?
A
- Hippocrates (the four humours)
- Immanuel Kant (dimensions)
- Wilhelm Wundt (temperament and dimensions)
- Francis Galton
- founder of differential psychology,
- personality should interact with biology in an observable manner
- William Sheldon
- Somatomorphy
- Devised tests of personality through body type
2
Q
What are the main premises of the trait approach to personality?
A
- Personality exists
- Personality is a probabilistic system
- Personality has both quantity and quality properties
- Need for scientific taxonomy (classification)
3
Q
What are traits?
A
- Traits are general dispositions that uniquely influence psychology
- Traits are not directly observable but inferred from indicators
- Traits do not determine behaviour but bias people towards certain behaviours
- Every human possesses all traits to a certain extent
- Development is generally assumed to end in early adult-hood
- relatively stable over time and situation
- Hierarchical arranged elements
- dimensionally arranged
4
Q
What is the difference between a trait and a state?
A
- State = intensity of traits at a given point
- Mood is a subclass of state
- External event + trait = state
5
Q
What is temperament?
A
- Characteristic reaction patterns
- biologically-based elements of personality
- present in infancy and childhood
- inherited subclass of personality dimensions
- fuzzy distinction with personality traits
6
Q
What are the forces that shape personality/traits?
A
- Genetics
- Evolution
- evolutionary personality psychology
- behavioural genetics
- Environment
7
Q
What are the methods and assumptions involved in measuring traits?
A
- Assumptions
- personality space is made-up of dimensions
- dimensions are independent (orthogonal)
- dimensions are finite
- Statistics
- factor analysis
- reliability and validity assessment
- Tests
- Psychometric questionaires
- Life history /peer review
- physical (EEG, heart-rate, etc)
8
Q
What was Allport’s definition of personality?
A
- Personality is a dynamic system of traits that determine characteristic behaviour and thoughts (unique adjustments)
- Personality is greater than the sum of its traits
- organised whole
- self-regulating
- continually evolving
- Personality is real not a construction or abstraction
9
Q
What was the focus of Allports Humanistic trait theory?
A
- Emphasis on the uniqueness of the person and individuality
- idiographic approach
- attempts to establish unique combination of traits that can best describe individual
10
Q
What was Allport’s definition and classification of traits?
A
- Traits are neuro-psychic structures disposing to certain action
- rooted in nervous system
- Unify stimulus and response: traits render diverse stimuli functionally equivalent on the basis of personality (consistency across scenarios)
- Three types of traits:
- Cardinal: pervasive and dominant, not all individuals posses
- Central: set of traits that can best describe individual
- Secondary: traits that are of lesser importance to individual’s personality
11
Q
What is Allports concept of the self?
A
- Personal experience and purpose are unifying aspects of personality
- Humans are rational, creative and self-reliant
- Proprium: The Allportian self (ego)
- is necessary, warm, central,
- Has eight stages of development
12
Q
What is Allports concept of motives?
A
- Adult motives are not necessarily the result of fixations, infantile motivations or unconscious needs
- Functional autonomy (of motives)
- permits a relative divorce from the past - emphasis on present state
- Perseverative functional autonomy:
- depends on feedback mechanisms or biochemical processes i.e. smoking
- Propriate functional autonomy
- motives that develop as direct expression of wants/desires
13
Q
What are the positives and negatives of Allports Humanistic Trait theory?
A
- Negatives
- largely neglects affect of environment
- no standardised measurement to assess personality
- largely ignores psychopathology
- initially reduced the importance of common traits
- impractical number of traits (4508)
- Positives
- founder of field of personality (separated from psychopathology )
- proposed traits approach
- proposed distinction between idiographic and nomothetic approaches
- humans are active agents
- opposing Freudian determinism
- behavioural reductionism
- Inspired humanistic/existential approach to personality
- Pioneered psychology of religion
14
Q
How did Cattell define personality and traits?
A
- Personality
- The characteristics of an individual that allow us to predict behaviour in given situation
- Traits
- Stable, long-lasting building blocks of personality that have predictive value
- Combined actions of traits result in individual differences
- Both environment and genetics important in development
- Constitutional Traits genetically determined
- Environmental-Mold Traits environmentally determined
15
Q
In Cattells lexical approach, what is the difference between ability traits, temperament traits and dynamic traits?
A
- Ability traits‘What we do’
- how we do in certain situations how well achieve goals e.g. intelligence
- Temperament traits‘How we do it’
- Styles adopted when pursuing goals
- Highly heritable
- Dynamic traits‘Why we do it’
- e.g. ambitious, competitive
- Three types
- Attitudes: constructs that express particular interests
- Sentiments: deeper aggregate of attitudes e.g. values, religiosity
- Ergs: innate drives
- Dynamic Lattice
- Organised complexity of dynamic traits ‘subsidiation’
16
Q
In Cattell’s lexical approach what is the difference between surface traits and source traits?
A
- Surface traits
- Directly Observable
- Cluster together and have high intercorrelation
- First order traits (personality is hierarchical)
- Source traits
- Latent Major dimensions of personality
- Second order traits
- Consist of clusters of first order traits
17
Q
What is Cattell’s Specification Equation?
A
Personality is the sum of weighted traits
18
Q
What are the six developmental stages in Cattell’s Lexical theory?
A
- 0-6: influenced by parents and siblings
- 6-14: independence from parents identification with peers
- 14-23: emotional disorders delinquency conflict of drives for sex, independence and self-assertion
- 23-50: productive and satisfying time
- 50-65: personality developments in response to physical changes
- 65-death adjustment to losses
19
Q
What is the Lexical Hypothesis?
A
- If individual differences are important, they should be encoded in language through trait descripters (Galton)
- Assumes:
- frequency of word use => importance of trait
- number of synonyms => importance of difference
- cross-culture presence => importance/universality of traits
20
Q
How have the established traits developed in the lexical approach?
A
21
Q
What are the L, Q and T sources of data Cattell used to devise his 16 PFs?
A
- L-data (Life record data)
- typically peer ratings
- Q-data (questionnaire data)
- self-report
- T-data (test data)
- objective tests in standardised conditions
22
Q
What are the positives and negatives of Cattell’s lexical trait theory?
A
- Positives
- first viable psychometric assessment of personality
- major contribution to mathematical psychology
- proposed state-trait dichotomy
- data gave rise to 5-factor model of personality
- Negatives
- inability to replicate the structure of 16PF
- absolute reliance on factor analysis and statistics
- controversial comments
- beyondism : religion based on evolutionary theory the fittest should inherit the earth
23
Q
In what ways did 5 recur in personality research?
A
- 5 factor models recurred across personality research
- Fiske(1949), Norman (63’), Cattell (57’) etc.
- Goldberg; English language ‘trait descriptors’
- Power (surgency)
- Love (agreeableness)
- Work (conscientiousness)
- Affect (emotional stability)
- Intellect
24
Q
What was Goldbergs assessment of the 5 personality dimensions?
A
- The Abridged Big Five-Dimensional Circumplex
- A circular model of personality
- Each pair of big 5 factors compromises own circle
- When factor loaded, most items have two factor loadings (rather than one)
- When mapped onto 2D planes = polygon
*
- When mapped onto 2D planes = polygon
25
How was the OCEAN model developed and how is it structured?
* Costa and McCrae
* Instead of factor analysing the 16PF they cluster analysed it
* Originally found only 3 dimensions: NEO Index
* Openness, Extraversion, Neuroticism
* Later added in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
* Structure of OCEAN
* Hierachical factoral arrangement
* Personality dimensions are *orthogonal*
* Personality dimensions each consist of **6 facets (traits)**
* Probably the most validated personality arrangment in academia
* The NEO-PI-R (revised index) is the most common psychological profiling tool
26
What is factor one in the OCEAN model and its 6 facets?
* Factor 1 is Extroversion: relates to degree of having social impact
* Six facets:
* 1. Gregarious
* 2. Warmth
* 3. Assertiveness
* 4. Activity
* 5. Excitement seeking
* 6. Positive emotion
* Behavioural corelates
* Typically has prominence in social organisations
* 0.36 heritability
27
What is factor 2 in the OCEAN model?
* Factor 2 is Neuroticism/emotionality = relates to anxiety and distress, emotional control/stability
* Six facets:
* 1. Anxiety
* 2. Anger/Hostility
* 3. Depression
* 4. Self-consciousness
* 5. Impulsiveness
* 6. Vulnerability (stress)
* Behavioural corelated:
* typically poor marriage/academic performance
* 0.31 heritability
28
What is factor 3 in the OCEAN model?
* Factor 3 is Agreeableness = relates to maintaining positive relations with others
* Six facets:
* 1. Trust
* 2. Straightforwardness
* 3. Altruism
* 4. Compliance
* 5. Modesty
* 6. Tender-mindedness
* Behavioural corelates: typically have good conflict resolution strategies and social support
* 0.28 heritability
29
What is factor 4 in the OCEAN model?
* Factor 4 is conscientiousness = relates to will to achieve
* Six facets:
* 1. Competence
* 2. Order
* 3. Dutifulness
* 4. Achievement Striving
* 5. Self-discipline
* 6. Deliberation
* Behavioural corelates: Typically has higher academic achievement
* 0.28 heritability
30
What is factor 5 in the OCEAN model?
* Factor 5 is openness = relates to acquisition of (openness to) new experience, curiosity, intelligence
* Least consensus about meaning
* Six facets:
* 1. Fantasy
* 2. Aesthetics
* 3. Attendance to Feelings
* 4. Actions
* 5. Ideas (curiosity)
* 6. Values
* Behavioural corelates: typically show greater engagement with existential challenges and artistic expression
* 0.46 heritability
31
What aspects of the OCEAN model give it psychometric value?
* **Internal consistency**
* normative internal consistencies between .70 and .85
* **Cross-culture replicability**
* Emic approach: bottom up, people first
* Etic approach: top down, theory first
* **Good temporal stability**
* 6 year retest reliabilities: generally between .75 and .85, lower for agreeableness
* **use in psychopathology**
* Pattern profiles can be fitted to certain psychopathologies, particularly personality disorders (borderline, avoidant, schizoid)
32
What are the positives and negatives of the Big Five personality model?
* Positives
* most common used in personality research
* immediate applications in health and occupations
* good psychometric properties
* Negatives
* disagreement on exact nature of factors
* dimensions not completely orthogonal
* no theoretical basis
* is openness a dimension of personality?
* Honesty-humility as a dimension? (the Big 6?)
* circular reasoning
* descriptive taxonomy (classification)
33
What is Eysencks Big 3 trait typology?
* A psychobiological approach to personality
* After revisiting old theories of the four humours, and looking at psychological and biological data proposed 3 main traits
* Big 3
* Neuroticism
* Extroversion
* Psychoticism
34
What is Neuroticism in Eysenck's Big 3 typology?
* Related temperament: emotionality
* Related traits:
* anxiety, depression, feelings of guilt, low self-esteem, tenseness, irrationality, moodiness, worry, fearfulness, obsessive indecision
* Predicts stres related disorders
* High neurotic individuals are consistently more prone to developing stress-related disorders, especially after experiencing traumatic events
35
What is Extroversion in Eysenck's big 3 typology?
* Related temperament: inhibition
* Related traits:
* sociability, liveliness, activity, impulsiveness, assertiveness
* High scores predict
* Extraverts are characterised by leadership, initiative, and readiness to assume responsibility
* Are also predisposed to accidents and injuries
* Low Scores predict
* Introverts tend to be persistent, co-operative and careful
36
What is Psychoticism in Eysencks big 3 typology?
* Tough- vs. tender-mindedness
* A compound dimension of (primarily) psychopathy and psychoticism (proper)
* Applies to all people but not commonly very pronounced
* Related traits:
* aggressiveness, impulsiveness, coldness, egocentrism, impersonality, antisocial behaviour, creativeness, stubbornness
* Predicts
* Highly psychotic people tend to be solitary, are often troublesome and outcasts, sexually perverse, lacking in feeling and empathy,
* HIgh psychoticism also predicts geniuses
* A predisposition to a psychotic and antisocial disorders
37
In Eysenck's Arousal Theory, what is the Cortico-Reticular Loop?
* The neural pathway related to extraversion
* Supports information processing
* regulates information/stimulus, maintains alertness, concentration
* Activity is associated with increased cortical arousal
* autonomic nervous system involved
* Over-arousal linked to Introverts:
* Rumination/high stimulation from small environmental factors
* Introverts display lower excitement
* Introverts display low-inhibitory nature (can't turn off the overthinking)
* Linked to memory
* Introverts LTM
* Extroverts STM
38
In Eysencks Arousal theory what is the Visero-Cortical Loop?
* The neural pathway related to neuroticism
* Controls subjective and emotional responses
* more excitable in neurotics
* Sympathetic hyperactivity
* positive feedback of nervous activity actives sympathetic response
* increases future susceptibility
* therefore neurotics respond more to own neurotic disposition rather than stimulus
39
What explains Psychoticism in Eysencks Arousal theory?
* Psychoticism has particularly high heritability rates
* There are several biological markers
* serotonin
* dopamine
* platelet monoamine oxidase (MAOs)
* Weakened excitatory and inhibitory regulation in the nervous system
40
In Gray's Reinforcement Sensistivity theory, what is the Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS)?
* Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS) interrupts on-going behaviour to prepare the individual to deal with potentially threatening stimuli
* Inhibits other responses, orients attention to potential threat and raises arousal
* **Avoids punishment**
* It is activated more in anxious people
* Trait anxiety (High N, low E & P)
* Recently a new subsystem has been proposed, the Fight-Flight-Freeze (FFFS), responsible for fear-regulation
41
In Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity theory, what is the Behavioural Approach system (BAS)?
* The behavioural approach system is the r**eward seeking** system
* involves dopaminergic fibres
* Controls approach to potentially beneficial and appetitive stimuli
* Considered substrate for impulsivity and optimism
* impulsivity = lack of planning
* high N,E and P
* optimism = high self-esteem and life satisfaction
* Low N and P, high E
* Impulsivity is not necessarily caused by underarousal, but by sensitivity
42
How does Grays sensitivity theory fit with Eysencks Arousal theory?
43
What is Zuckerman's Psychobiological theory?
* Criticised Eysenck and Gray for oversimplification - ignoring other systems(endocrine), unequal weighting of systems and interactions between systems
* Developed a psychobiological hierachy
* Alternative big 5 based on biology
1. **Extraversion** (sociability): associated with sensitivity to reward, similar to Gray
2. **Neuroticism** (anxiety): sensitivity to punishment, emotional and epinephrine arousal
3. **Psychoticism** (impulsive): psychopathy, sensation seeking, act for sake of excitement lack of behavioural restraint
4. **Agression** (hostility): readiness to express verbal agression, temper
5. **Activity:** need for general activity, impatience, seek challenge
44
What is Zuckermans Psychophysiological hierachy?
1. Supertraits - the big 5
2. Traits - sociability, general emotions
3. Cognitive/behavioural - expectations, desires
4. Psychophysiology - adrenal arousal, cortical inhibition
5. Neurotransmitters/enzymes/hormones
45
Name 5 sources of empirical evidence for the psychobiological approach to personality
1. **ElectroEncephaloGraphy (EEG)**
* introverts have higher cortical arousal
* introverts have higher alpha waves
2. **ElectroDermal Activity (EDA)**
* high sensation seekers get more aroused with intense stimulation
* introverts become less aroused with caffeine (threshold?)
3. **Heart Rate Variability**
* in stressful situation introverts have higher heart rates
4. **Functional Brain Scanning**
* association between dopamine production and BAS
5. **Hormones**
* Prenatal testosterone produces higher aggresion levels, effect stronger in boys than girls
46
What are some potential limitations of psychophysiological research?
* Methodological
* limited understanding of the systems involved, instrumental limitation
* Evoked Potential
* extraverts seek arousal when bored, compounds arousal measures
* Transmarginal Inhibition of CNS
* de-arousal tendency when experiencing intense stimulation low boundaries in introverts
* Plasticity
* neurobiological systems can change often as a result of experience
47
What are some of the positives and negatives of Psychobiological theories of personality?
* Positives
* first theories to describe biological correlates of personality
* first causal theories
* first theories to link normal and abnormal personality (dimensional approach)
* direct application to mental disorders
* ‘birth’ of modern clinical psychology
* Negatives
* disagreement on exact number of biological systems involved
* assessment of traits becomes impractical
* Eysneck’s psychoticism dimension is not well-defined and unreliable
* biological underpinning needs further explanation
* only explain 40% of variance
Personality & Intelligence
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