1
Q
Brain Protection
A
- Skull/Cranium
- Meninges
- Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
2
Q
Spinal Cord
A
- Connected to the brain by the brain stem
- Long bundle of nerves
- Sends motor commands from the brain to the body, sends sensory information from the body to the brain, and coordinates reflexes
3
Q
3 Main Sections of the Spinal Cord
A
- Cervical Spinal Cord: sends nerves to the face and neck
- Thoracic Spinal Cord: sends nerves to the arms, chest, and abdomen
- Lumbar-Sacral Spinal Cord: sends nerves to the lower body
4
Q
Cauda Equina
A
- A bunch of nerves at the bottom of the spinal cord
5
Q
Types of Neurons in the Somatic Nervous System
A
- Sensory Neurons: carry signals from the outer parts of your body (periphery) into the central nervous system
- Motor Neurons: carry signals from the central nervous system to the outer parts (muscles, skin, glands) of the body
- Interneurons: connect various neurons within the body and spinal cord
6
Q
The Somatic Nervous System is made up of:
A
- Spinal Nerves: mixed nerves that carry sensory information into and motor commands out of the spinal cord
- Cranial Nerves: they are the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem
7
Q
ASIA Impairment Scale
A
- A: complete; no motor, no sensory, no sacral sparing
- B: incomplete; no motor, sensory only
- C: incomplete; 50% of muscles LESS than grade 3 (can’t raise arms or legs off bed)
- D: incomplete; 50% of muscles MORE than grade 3 (can raise arms or legs off bed)
- E: normal; motor and sensory function are normal
8
Q
Amygdala
A
- Happiness and enjoyment
- Anxiety, irritability, and unease - withdrawal feelings = rewarding or aversive
- PTSD = HIGHER AMYGDALA AND LOWER VMPFC ACTIVATION
9
Q
Amygdala with Hippocampus
A
- Long term memories
- Episodic Memory: long-term memory that involves conscious recollection of previous experiences
- Long-term Potentiation: a process involving persistent strengthening of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons
10
Q
Amygdala with Hypothalamus
A
- Sympathetic nervous response (fight or flight)
11
Q
Amygdala with Thalamus
A
- Unconscious fear processing
- Conditioned emotional response (classical conditioning)
- Unconscious response
12
Q
Structures of the Amygdala
A
- Lateral Nucleus: regarded as the sensory input gateway; located in dorso-lateral part of the amygdala
- Central Nucleus: key role in emotional response to aversive stimuli –> stress; damage = less stress hormones, ulcers, and stress-induced illnesses; stimulation = higher fear, agitation, gastric ulcers
- Basal Nucleus: major output pathways to cerebral cortex; projects to the VMPFC –> extinction of conditioned fear
13
Q
Ventral Tegmental Area
A
- Dopamine-rich nucleus that mediates reward system
- Located in midbrain, next to substantia nigra
- Sends dopamine to the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex
14
Q
Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (VMPFC)
A
- Impulse control, courage, moral decision making
- Interface between emotional responses and control of complex behaviors
- Using emotional reasons to guide behaviors
- Courage = higher VMPFC activation
- Impulsive/emotional murderers = lower VMPFC activation vs. calculating/careful - typical brain patterns
- Antisocial personality disorder = 11% less gray matter in VMPFC
15
Q
Patient E.R.
A
- Bilateral damage of the VMPFC
- Excellent social judgement in verbal responses to hypothetical situations, expansive reasoning shared
- Real life situations = unable to prioritize between trivial and important decisions
16
Q
Neuron Structures
A
- Cell body (Soma)
- Dendrites
- Axons
- Myelin Sheath
- Terminal Buttons/Axon Terminals
17
Q
Cell Body (Soma)
A
- Contains the nucleus
- Shape varies in different kinds of neurons
18
Q
Dendrites
A
- A branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron
- Receives information transmitted across synapse
- Neurons converse with one another, and dendrites are recipients of these messages
19
Q
Axons
A
- Long, thin. cylindrical structures
- Axon Hillock: gate keeper of whether an action potential is strong enough
- Carries information from cell body to terminal buttons/axon terminal
- Action potential is basic message
20
Q
Terminal Buttons/Axon Terminals
A
- Buds at the end of a branch of an axon
- Forms synapses with another neuron
- Secretes chemicals called neurotransmitters
21
Q
Types of Glial Cells
A
- Microglia
- Astrocytes
- Oligodendrocytes
22
Q
Microglia
A
- Smallest glial cells
- Clean up dead cells
- Protect the brain from invading microorganisms/toxins
- Damage/toxins = microglial cells produce inflammatory mediators to call other cells to the injury –> promote and perpetuate the inflammatory response –> can worsen neurodegeneration
23
Q
Astrocytes
A
- Star shaped
- Neuron “glue” - holds them in place
- Engulf debris (phagocytosis)
- Provide nourishment via transfer of fuel - neurons use a lot of energy but cannot store it
- Provide electric insulation for unmyelinated neurons
24
Q
Oligodendrocytes
A
- Produces myelin in the form of a tube by wrapping itself around the axon
- Forms sheath in segments
- Episodic gaps = Nodes of Ranvier
25
Action Potential
- Rapid burst of depolarization followed by hyperpolarization
- All or none law
26
Depolarization
- Reduction of membrane potential (less negative inside)
- Lower in electrical charge = lower membrane potential
- Threshold of Excitation = set point to produce an action potential = -55mV
27
Hyperpolarization
- Increase in membrane potential
28
Post-synaptic Potential Types
- Determined by characteristics of postsynaptic receptors; type of ion channel they open
- Excitatory (EPSP): Sodium channel opened; depolarizing
- Inhibitory (IPSP): Potassium channel opened; Hyperpolarizing
29
Glutamate
- "Go"
- Main excitatory neurotransmitter in brain and spinal cord
- Stored in vesicles and released from presynaptic neuron following an action potential
- Removed from synapse by excitatory AA transporters
30
GABA
- "Stop"
- Inhibitory in the brain
- Stored in presynaptic vesicles
- GABA transporters re-uptake; aminotransferase deactivates
31
GABAA Receptor
- 5 binding sites
- Indirect agonists that bind the GABAA = benzos, some sleep meds, barbiturates, steroid hormones = sedating effects
- indirect antagonists at high doses = seizures
32
Glycine
- Inhibitory in the spinal cord and lower brain stem
33
NMDA Receptors
- 6 binding sites (4 on exterior and 2 located deep in the channel)
- Requirements for Glutamate to bind: Glycine must be attached; Mg must not be attached --> depolarized
- When channel is opened NMDA receptor allows sodium and calcium into cell --> depolarization
34
Dopamine Primary Effect
- Movement, attention, learning, and the reinforcing effects of substances
35
Serotonin Primary Effects
- Involved in mood and pain regulation, and the control of eating, sleep, arousal, and dreaming
36
Norepinephrine Primary Effects
- Vigilance/Attentiveness
37
Oxytocin
- Post-Orgasm: in women, higher oxytocin = feelings of attachment and bonding
38
Vasopressin
- Post-Orgasm: in men, higher vasopressin = vigilance and need to guard/protect partner
39
Key Structures of the Brain's Reward System
- Ventral Tegmental Area
- Nucleus Accumbens
- Amygdala
- Hippocampus
- Prefrontal Cortex
40
Nucleus Accumbens
- Involved in all motivationally relevant stimuli = rewarding or aversive
- Interface between motivation and action
41
Hippocampus
- Memory and learning
42
Prefrontal Cortex
- Reasoning, problem-solving, impulse control, creativity, perseverance
43
Positive Reinforcement
- Add something to the environment to increase behavior
44
Positive Punishment
- Add something to the environment to decrease the behavior
45
Negative Reinforcement
Remove something from the environment to increase the behavior
46
Negative Punishment
Remove something from the environment to decrease the behavior
47
Role of Stress
- Stress = higher corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
- Strengthens amygdala
- Weakens the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
- Results in: Negative emotional state, Lack of executive control (higher risk of relapse), Memory of relief/cravings
48
Studies of Stress
- 1/3 adolescents with reported abuse/neglect will develop SUD before 18
- 2-4x of those with PTSD developing chemical dependencies
- COVID-19 = 23% increase in AUD
49
Ethanol Absoprtion
- 20% stomach and 80% small intestine (several variables)
- Food inhibits absorption causing oxidation of alcohol
- 20-30% BAC absorbed fastest
- >30% irritates gastric mucosa --> slowed absorption
- IMPAIRED THIAMINE ABSORPTION
50
Ethanol Metabolism
- Primarily hepatic (90%)
- Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) oxidation (requires B vitamins)
- Metabolized to form acetaldehyde (carcinogenic, prevents, absorption of nutrients)
51
Ethanol Excretion
- Urine
- Diuretic properties --> decreased nutrients and dehydration
52
Ethanol Intoxication
- Consuming ETOH faster than liver can break it down
- 1 standard drink per hour
- 80% of individuals with AUD = thiamine deficiency due to lower vitamin absorption and higher thiamine use by ADH
53
Stimulant Pharmacokinetics
- Stimulants impact the brain's level of epinephrine/norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin
- Primary risk factors: Reduced seizure threshold; Higher BP, HR, HTB = higher risk of stroke, MI; Poor appetite, mood swings, anxiety, insomnia; Toxic levels = paranoia, psychosis
54
Nicotine Absorption
- Tobacco smoke - enters blood stream via lungs
- Smokeless tobacco - mucosal membrane of mouth, nose, or skin
- Reaches the brain in 7 seconds
- Mimics Ach = arousal, learning, memory, and emotions
55
Nicotine Effects
- Binds to nicotinic receptors --> changes cerebral metabolism
- Stimulates adrenal glands --> higher BP, HR, respiration, alertness and epinephrine
56
Nicotine Metabolism and Excretion
- Higher metabolism
- Metabolized by liver, kidneys, lungs = cotinine
- Excreted via urine
57
Cannabis Absorption
- Inhalation: peak plasma conc. 3-10 minutes; bioavailability = 10-35%
- Oral: peak plasma conc. ~ 120 minutes, bioavailability = 6-20%
58
Cannabis Distribution
- Rapidly to well-vascularized organs
- Accumulates in adipose tissue
59
Cannabis Metabolism
- Predominately hepatic
- Able to cross the placenta; released in breast milk
- Excreted through urine, feces, and sweat
60
Neural Effects of Ethanol
- OVERALL CNS DEPRESSANT
- Higher GABA and lower glutamate = slowed/inhibited NT firing --> sedation
- Higher serotonin and dopamine = relaxation and good mood
- Cerebellum --> loss of coordination and consciousness
- PFC --> decreased inhibition
- Blocks vasopressin = more urination and dehydration
61
Functions of Sleep
- To stay away from predators
- Conserve energy
- Allow body time to rest and regenerate
- Waste clearance
- Memory consolidation
62
Sleep Waves
- Synchronous Delta Activity: if the cells are active at about the same time their electrical messages are synchronized and appear as a large, clear wave in EEG data
- Desynchronous Beta Waves Activity: if neurons are active at different times, their electrical messages are desynchronized and appear as small, chaotic waveforms without a clear pattern in the EEG data
63
Roles of Slow-Wave Sleep in Learning/Memory
- Slow-wave sleep facilitates consolidation of declarative memories
- The brain rehearses newly learned information during slow-wave sleep
64
Roles of REM Sleep in Learning/Memory
- REM is important for early neurological development
- REM sleep facilitates consolidation of nondeclarative memories
65
Neural Chemicals Involved in Sleep
- Adenosine
- Histamines
- Acetylcholine
- Serotonin
- Norepinephrine
- Orexin
66
Adenosine
- Inhibitory
- Sleep deprivation = lower glycogen stores and higher adenosine = sleepiness
- Increases steadily during day producing sleepy feeling at night
67
Histamines
- keeps us awake
- antihistamines make us drowsy
68
Acetylcholine
- High during wakefulness and REM
69
Serotonin
- Low during REM sleep = limited movement
70
Norepinephrine
- Higher locus coeruleus firing = higher vigilance/focus
71
Orexin
High during alert or active waking, especially exploratory activity
72
Insomnia
- Effects 30% of adults
- Primary insomnia: difficulty falling asleep after going to bed or after awakening during the night
- Secondary insomnia: inability to sleep due to another mental or physical condition (e.g., pain, medication)
73
Narcolepsy
- Orexin-related neurological disorder
- Sleep attacks = overwhelming urge to sleep
- Cataplexy = sudden muscle weakness/paralysis
- Sleep paralysis = inability to move before onset of sleep or waking
- Treatment = modafinil, methylphenidate, SSRIs
74
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
- Lack of muscle paralysis during REM --> acting out of dreams
- Can be comorbid with narcolepsy
- Typical onset 60 years+
- Believed to be neurodegenerative
- Treatment = clonazepam
75
Sleep Apnea
- 18 million Americans
- Difficulties sleeping and breathing at the same time
- Wake up gasping for airway and decreased slow wave activity
- Obstructive sleep apnea: due to narrowing of airway
- Central sleep apnea: brain does not signal need to breath
- Untreated: sig. deficits in attention, memory, and executive functions; increase risk of stroke, MI; in kids 2.5x risk of behavioral problems
76
Melatonin
- Produced by the Pineal Gland in response to evening/darkness about 2 hours before normal sleep time
- Serotonin is converted into melatonin
- Exogenous melatonin = take 1-2mg 30 to 1 hour before bedtime
- Light (especially blue light) negates melatonin effects
- Contraindicated in older adults with dementia and those with dementia
77
Emotional Response Components
Behavioral --> Emotional Response --> Hormonal; Autonomic
78
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
- Can be caused by stroke, encephalitis, tumors, TBI, and even a lobotomy
- Damage to the bilateral amygdaloid nuclei (anterior temporal lobes) and hippocampus
- Results in: Absence of fear and anger response; psychic blindness/visual agnosia; hyper-orality; hyper-sexuality without sexual desire; binge eating disorder/bulimia; memory disorders
79
Urbach-Weithe Disease
- Rare genetic disorder
- Progressive damaging of neural tissue (via calcification)
- In the brain is confined to the amygdala complex
- 400 people worldwide (1/4 in South Africa)
- First symptom = weak cry/hoarse voice
- typical cognition across all domains
- Patient SM = lack of fear response
- Lack of pathway to VMPFC = no inhibition from typical fear inducing stimuli
80
Relationship between Heredity, Serotonin, and Aggression
- Higher correlations between monozygotic twins in antisocial and unemotional behavior
- 50-65% heritability --> believed to be due to gene modifications impacting serotonin synthesis/signaling
- Aggressive child-parent interactions = higher amygdala activation and aggression
- Serotonin inhibits aggression and risky behavior
- SSRIs = lower irritability and aggression
81
Emotional Expressions
- No differences between the expressions of congenitally blind, noncongenitally blind, and sighted athletes when expressing happiness
- Namibians and European-English = matched the same vocalizations with the correct story
82
Affective Blindness
- Those with damage to the visual cortex, can recognize facial expressions of emotions without conscious awareness of looking at a person's face
- "I can't see it" --> while matching it
83
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
- Wernicke's Encephalopathy (WE): ACUTE phase = confusion, incoordination, ataxia, decreased consciousness, memory deficits, abnormal gait
- Korsakoff Psychosis: can develop after WE or without - CHRONIC phase = severe short term memory loss, poor coordination
- Caused by chronic ETOH use and/or Thiamine deficiency
84
Alcoholic Neuropathy
- Peripheral nerve damage
85
Alcoholic Cerebellar Damage
- Deterioration or cerebellar neurons
- Chronic incoordination, slurred speech, jerky movements, tremor, nystagmus
86
Blood Brain Barrier
- Selectively permeable
- Area Postrema = weakest region (vomiting); has an additional barrier
- Blocks all molecules except those with: lipid soluble, specialized sugars and amino acids via facilitated diffusion, water molecules
87
Saltatory Conduction
- In myelinated fibers, depolarization and repolarization processes occur from one node of ranvier to the next instead of the entire area of the membrane
- Economic and speedy
88
Sleep Stages (5)
1. Waking
2. NREM: Stage 1
3. NREM: Stage 2
4. NREM: Stage 3
5. REM
89
NREM: Stage 1 (N1)
- Transition between wakefulness and sleep
- Lightest stage of sleep
- Theta waves (4/7Hz)
- 2-5% of total sleep time
- Hypnic jerks
- Increased proportion suggests sleep fragmentation
90
NREM: Stage 2
- About half the night
- Slowed HR, breathing, muscle activity, eye movements
- Reduced body temp
- Characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes
91
NREM: Stage 3
- Slow-wave sleep
- Low frequency, high amplitude delta waves
- 20% TST
- Thought to be the most restorative sleep stage: memory consolidation, waste clearance
- Predominates first half of the night
92
REM
- Rapid eye movement sleep
- Muscle paralysis
- Dreams
- Easily awoken from this stage
- Desynchronized EEG
- Absence of movement on EMG
93
Sleep Cycles
- Each cycle lasts ~ 90 minutes
- Alternates from REM to NREM
- SWS predominates first half of the night
- REM predominates second half
Physiological Psychology
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