1
Q
Continuous
A
- Uses aerobic respiration
- Works below lactate threshold
- Involves completing a continuous skill for more than 20 minutes
- E.g. swimming/rowing/running/cycling
- The performer aims to reach a steady state, where by enough oxygen is delivered to the working muscle to respire aerobically
- This aims to improve the performer’s cardiorespiratory endurance/stamina
- The performer should work between 65-75% of maximum heart rate
- E.g. A 20 year old athlete will work between 130bpm-150bpm for more than 20 minutes.
2
Q
Interval/HIIT
A
- Involves alternating between periods of high intensity exercise and short periods of rest
- E.g. 30 seconds of burpees followed by 30 seconds of rest
- During the working periods, the performer will work at high intensities, using the lactate anaerobic system.
- The performer will work above their lactate threshold
- During rest periods, the performer will respire aerobically to remove lactic acid via oxidation
- The aim is to improve cardiovascular endurance/stamina
- The performer should work between 75-85% of maximum heart rate
- E.g. a 20 year old athlete would work between 150-170bpm.
3
Q
Fartlek
A
- Swedish for speed play
- Continuous style of training that involves alternating intensity and terrain for a minimum of 30 minutes
- E.g. The performer may jog for 100m on a flat surface, sprint for 10m uphill and walk for 20m downhill
- During high intensity periods, the performer uses the lactate anaerobic system and works above the lactate threshold
- During low intensity periods, the performer uses aerobic respiration and is able to remove lactic acid via oxidation
- Aims to improves cardiovascular endurance/stamina
4
Q
Weight
A
- Involves the use of sets and reps
- The performer can use free weights or resistance machines
- To improve muscular strength, the performer would use low reps (less than 6) and a high weight
- To improve muscular endurance, the performer would use high reps (more than 12) and a lighter weight.
5
Q
Circuit
A
- Involves the performer moving between different stations completing different exercises
- Allows the performer to train a specific component of fitness
- E.g. to improve flexibility, the performer would complete a stretching circuit
- The intensity can be varied by changing the rest periods or the amount of time spent at each station
6
Q
Plyometric: General
A
- Involves hopping, jumping and bounding
- Leads to hypertrophy of type 2b muscle fibres
- Which causes an increase in power
7
Q
Plyometric: Process
A
- The performer completes a rapid eccentric contraction
- This is detected by muscle spindles
- Muscle spindles are a protective mechanism designed to prevent overstretching
- Muscle spindles send a nerve impulse to the central nervous system (CNS)
- The central nervous system activate a stretch reflex, which forces the muscle to store elastic energy
- This allows the muscle to perform a rapid concentric contraction
- E.g. Squatting down, followed by jumping as high as possible.
8
Q
Plyometric: Advantages
A
Anaerobic Adaptations:
* Hypertrophy of fast twutch type2b muscle fibres
* Increased recruitment of motor units
* High PC Stores
* Increased strength of tendons, ligaments & bone density
9
Q
Plyometric: Disadvantages
A
- Rapid eccentric contractions may cause muscle fibres to tear/ DOMS
- Only develops power, performer must use other methods of training to improve other components of fitness
- e.g. games player may also use fartlek to develop CV endurance
10
Q
PNF: General
A
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Flexibility
also known as Mobility Training
aim to improve flexibility
11
Q
PNF: Process
A
- The muscle is firtsly taken to its end range of movement
- This change in length, is detected by the muscle spindles (protective mechanism designed to prevent overstretching)
- The muscle spindle sends a message to the CNS, attempts to activate sretch reflex
- However, performer hold isometric muscles contraction for 10s, activating golgi tendon organ
- Overrides muscle spindles which allows muscle to relax
- Muscle able to strech further
12
Q
PNF: Advnatages
A
- Increase performer’s range of movement about their joints, increasing flexibility
- e.g. beneficial for gymnast can reach more asethically pleasing positions
- e.g. good for goalkeeper to make more acrobatic saves
- Increased range of movement can also reduce injury
13
Q
PNF: Disadvantages
A
- If not completed by professional could cause injury, performer unable to train, causing reversibility
- Only develops flexibility, gymanst would also need power so use plyometric training
14
Q
Dynamic Stretching
A
Involves the performer stretching through a sport specific movement.
E.g. Leg swings to replicate kicking a ball.
15
Q
Ballistic Stretching
A
Involves the performer bouncing in and out of a stretch.
Usually only used by professional athletes as it may cause injuries
16
Q
Benefits of dynamic & ballistic stretching
A
Increase cardiac output – increase O2 delivery – aerobic respiration at start of performance – less LA build up
Increase muscle temperature – increase synovial fluid – increase flexibility – reduce injury
17
Q
Calculating Working Intensities
A
Heart Rate Training Zone
BORG RPE Scale
RPE Scale
18
Q
Heart Rate Training Zone
A
- Performer calculates their maximum heart rate
- Using 220 – age
- To improve cardiovascular endurance/stamina, the performer would work between 60-80% of maximum heart rate
- E.g. a 20 year old athlete would work between 120bpm-160bpm to improve stamina
19
Q
BORG RPE Scale
A
- The performer may use the Borg RPE Scale
- Which measures rate of perceived exertion
- The scale runs from 6 (no exertion) to 20 (maximal exertion)
- However, the Borg RPE scale is subjective because it measures how hard the performer thinks they are working
20
Q
RPE Scale
A
- Generally used for weight training
- Measures the rate of perceived exertion
- Measured from 1 (no exertion) to 10 (maximal exertion – no more reps can be completed)
- However, the RPE scale is subjective because it measures how hard the performer thinks they are working
21
Q
Altitude: General
A
Altitude training takes place 2000m above sea level
The performer must train at altitude for at least 30 days
There is a low PO2 at altitude
22
Q
Altitude: Advantages
A
- Being at altitude stimulates the hormone EPO, increases the performer’s red blood cell production
- There is also an increase in haemoglobin content
- Both these adaptations improve the performer’s capacity to carry O2 to the working muscles
- Increased capillarisation, which increases surface for diffusion of gases at the working muscle
- Increased myoglobin, allowing the performer to extract more O2 from the blood stream
23
Q
Altitude: Disadvantages
A
- Training at altitude may cause altitude sickness (hypoxia) which may mean the performer cannot train
- This may cause reversibility leading to lower fitness levels
- Benefits of altitude training only last 30 days
- Alternative may be for the performer to use a hypoxic apartments/tents.
24
Q
heart rate
A
the amount of times the heart beats per min
25
stroke volume
the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per beat
26
cardiac output
the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute
27
relationship between heart rate, cardiac ouput & stroke volume
cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
28
Explain how training affects cardiac output and its components
Trained performer has
- cardiac hypertrophy (heart bigger & stronger)
- higher stroke volume (more blood left ventricle per beat)
- lower resting heart rate
- increased maximum cardiac ouput (more blood left vent pm)
- bradycardia (resting heart rate >60bpm)
- improved ejection fraction (proportion blood out left vent pb)
29
Explain how it is possible for trained & untrained performer to have same cardiac output at a given intensity
- cardiac output = blood pumped out of left vent pm
- cardiac ouput = stroke volume x heart rate
- trained performer cardiac hypertophy so …
- during exercise lower resting heart rate & higher stroke volume
- untrained performer - higher heart rate & lower stroke volume
30
Andy and Tom are 24 years old. Tom is a cross country runner who trains 3 times a week. Andy is a tank but has been injured for 6 months; he has not trained for 6 months.
How would maximal cardiac output differ between Andy & Tom? Justify your answer.
Tom has bigger heart cardiac hypertophy training
Tom increased stroke volume & lower resting heart rate
Andy greater resting heart rate & lower stroke volume
Same maximum heart rate same age
Tom higher maximal cardiac output than Andy
31
Explain how a lower resting heart rate affects oxygen delivery to the muscles
The heart uses less oxygen for respiration
More oxygen delivered to working muscles
Use aerobic respiration for longer
Remove more lactic acid
32
Conduction of the heart
1)Sino Atrio Node (SAN) heart’s pacemaker & sends out electrical impulse
2)Causes atria to contract, forcing blood into ventricles
3)Atro ventricular node (AVN) sends 2nd nerve impulse
4)Travels down bundle of his, delaying impulse for 0.1 seconds, allowing atria to empty all of blood
5)Impulse then travels down Purkinje fibres, causes atria to contract, forcing blood out of heart
33
Diastolic Phase
- During the diastolic phase, the atria passively fill with blood
- During ventricular diastole, the ventricles passively fill with blood, due to an increase in pressure in the atria
34
Systolic Phase
- During atria systole, the increased pressure in atria forces blood into the ventricle
- During ventricular systole, there is an increased pressure in the ventricles which forces the blood (aorta) to the body and lungs (pulmonary artery)
35
venous return
return of blood to heart
36
Mechanisms of Venous Return
Muscle Pump
Respiratory Pump
One-way valve
37
Muscle Pump
The muscles contract, which squeezes the veins and forces blood back to the heart
38
Respiratory Pump
The chest size increases, which squeezes the veins and forces blood back to the heart
39
One-way valve
veins contain one-way valves that prevent the backflow of blood
40
Starling's Law
1)During exercise, there are greater levels of venous return
2)Therefore, a greater amount of blood fills the heart
3)Therefore, there is a greater stretch of the heart walls
4)Therefore, there is a greater force of contraction
5)Therefore, there is a greater levels of stroke volume
6)This means there is a greater amount of oxygen available for the working muscles, so the performer can use aerobic respiration for longer
41
Explain how an increase in venous return affects cardiac output
1)During exercise, there are greater levels of venous return
2)Therefore, a greater amount of blood fills the heart
3)Therefore, there is a greater stretch of the heart walls
4)Therefore, there is a greater force of contraction
5)Therefore, there is a greater levels of stroke volume
6)This means there is a greater amount of oxygen available for the working muscles, so the performer can use aerobic respiration for longer
42
Role of Receptors
Chemoreceptor- detect changes in blood acidity, caused by CO2
Proprioceptor - detect changes in muscular contraction
Baroreceptor - detect changes in Blood pressure
Thermoreceptor - detect changes in body temperature
43
Describe the role of different receptors and how they cause an increase in heart rate
- Chemoreceptors detect an increase in blood acidity
- Proprioceptors detect an increase in muscular contractions
- Thermoreceptors detect an increase in body temperature
- Baroreceptors detect an increase in blood pressure
- All 4 receptors then send nerve impulses to the cardiac control centre (CCC) in the medulla
- The CCC then sends an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses down the acceleratory nerve to the SAN
- This causes heart rate to increase
44
Describe the role of different receptors and how they cause a decrease in heart rate
State that all receptors detect a DECREASE
* All 4 receptors send a nerve impulse to the CCC in the medulla
* The CCC then sends an increased frequency of parasympathetic nerve impulses down the inhibitory nerve to the SAN
* This causes a decrease in heart rate
45
Explain how neural control helps to regulate cardiac output during exercise
- All 4 receptors detect a change
- All 4 receptors send a nerve impulse to the CCC in the medulla
- If the receptors detect an increase, then the CCC will send an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses down the acceleratory nerve, to the SAN
- This causes an increase in heart rate
- However, if the receptors detect a decrease, then the CCC sends an increased frequency of parasympathetic nerve impulses down the inhibitory nerve, to the SAN
- This causes a decrease in heart rate
46
Health
A state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing in the absence of disease or illness
47
Fitness
The ability to cope with the demands of the environment
48
Exercise
An activity that requires physical or mental exertion and is performed to improve or maintain fitness
49
Sedentary
Sitting down or being physically inactive for long periods of time
50
Social Benefits
· Make new friends
· Less likely to require medical care, reducing strain on NHS
· More likely to spend leisure time effectively e.g. joining a sports club. Reduces the strain on police & reduces the likelihood of crime
· Healthy individuals make productive lifestyle choices e.g. not smoking
. Healthy individuals less likely to require time off work, improves productivity & benefits the economy
51
Physiological Benefits
Continuous/HIIT Training
· Improves cardiovascular endurance
· Reduces risk of obesity
· Reducing risk of type 2 diabetes & heart disease
PNF
· Improvement in flexibility
· Improved posture & body shape
· Reducing risk of arthritis
Weight Training
· Improved strength
· Increased bone density
. Reduces risk of osteoporosis
52
Psychological Benefits
Allows release of endorphins, improves individual’s mood state
Exercise can be used to release stress (catharsis)
Exercise allows a performer to focus more clearly on a task
53
ATP Splitting
· ATP is broken down by ATPase
· To form ADP + P + Energy
· The energy is then used for muscular contractions
54
ATP-PC System
· Creatine kinase detects high levels of ADP
· And breaks down PC into P + C + Energy
· The energy is then used to resynthesise ATP
· The ATP can then be broken down and used for muscular contractions
· The ATP-PC system lasts for 8 seconds.
55
ATP-PC Advantages
· Allows for the rapid resynthesis of ATP through the break down of PC
· This allows the performer to work at a high intensity
· And complete multiple ballistic skills e.g. explosively pushing off the blocks, followed by a sprint to the finish line in the 100m
.Without the build up of lactic acid
56
ATP-PC Disadvantages
· The performer only has a limited store of PC
· Therefore, the system can only be used for 8 seconds
.Full recovery of the PC system takes 3 minutes
57
Lactate Anaerobic System
· Glycogen is broken down into glucose
· This produces enough energy to resynthesise 2 ATP
· Glucose is broken down into pyruvate
· This is known as glycolysis
· Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid
· The lactate anaerobic system lasts for 3 minutes
58
Lactate Anaerobic Advantages
· Provides a rapid release of energy
· Lasts for 3 minutes
59
Lactate Anaerobic Disadvantages
· Causes a build up lactic acid
· Which can denature enzymes and cause fatigue
. Therefore, the performer may slow down towards the end of the race
60
Aerobic Respiration: Glycolysis
· Glycogen is broken down into glucose
· Enough energy is produced to resynthesise 2 ATP
· Glucose is broken down into pyruvate.
61
Aerobic Respiration: Krebs cycle
· Pyruvate is oxidised to form acetyl-coA, which enters the Krebs Cycle
· Acetyl-coA is converted into oxaloacetic acid
· Oxaloacetic acid combines with co-enzymeA to form citric acid
· Enough energy is produced to resynthesise 2 ATP
62
Aerobic Respiration: Electron Transport Chain
· Hydrogen is produced and transported to the electron transport chain
· This produces 34 ATP and H2O
· Fats are then broken down into fatty acids
· Fatty acids are oxidised to form Acetyl-coA, which enters the Krebs Cycle - Beta Oxidation
63
Aerobic Respiration Advantages
· Fats yield more energy per gram than carbohydrates
· This allows 34-38 ATP to be produced via aerobic respiration
.Therefore, when using aerobic respiration, the performer is able to remove lactic acid via oxidation
64
Aerobic Respiration Disadvantages
· Aerobic respiration is only useful when oxygen is present
· As oxygen is required to oxidise pyruvate and to break down fats
· Slower release of energy than other 2 systems
· Cannot resynthesise ATP quickly - aerobic respiration can only be used for low intensity exercise
65
Energy Sources
ATP
PC
Carbohydrates/Glycogen/Glucose
Fats
Protein
Lactic Acid
66
Energy Systems
ATP-PC
Lactate Anaerobic
Aerobic Respiration
67
How long does ATP-PC last for?
8 seconds
68
How long does Lactate Anaerobic last for?
8 seconds - 3 minutes
69
How long does Aerobic Respiration last for?
3 minutes +
70
Applied Question:
Outline and explain the relationship between energy sources and intensity of exercise
Low intensities
50% of energy from fats
50% of energy from carbohydrates
Enough oxygen available in muscle to oxidise pyruvate & fatty acids into acetyl-CoA
71
Aerobic Adaptations
cardiac hypertrophy
increase percentage of alveloi used
increased myoglobin content
increased mitochondrial density
high stores of triglycerides
72
Cardiac hypertrophy
aerobic exercise, cardiac hypertrophy, heart gets bigger and stronger
increased stroke volume blood pumped left venticle per beat
increased cardiac output
increases capacity to transport oxygen to muscles
73
Increased percentage of alveoli used
more sites for diffusion in lungs
rate of diffusion from alveoli to capillary increases
increases capacity to transport oxygen to muscle
remove lactic acid via oxidation
lactate threshold & OBLA reached later
74
Increased myoglobin content
myoglobin extracts oxygen from bloodstream into muscle
rate of diffusion of oxygen increases
resynthesise ATP aerobically
if didn’t have high myoglobin resynthesise ATP anaerobically, lactic acid build up, fatigue
75
Increased mitochondrial density
produce more ATP per oxygen molecule through aerobic respiration
76
High stores of triglycerides
can be broken down into fatty acids & used as energy source for aerobic respiration
77
Anaerobic Adaptations
Hypertrophy of fast twitch type 2b muscle fibres
Increased recruitment of motor units
High PC stores
Increased strength of tendons, ligaments & bone density
78
Hypertrophy of fast twitch type 2b muscle fibres
muscle fibres become thicker
increased force of contraction
power increases
79
Increased recruitment of motor units
Increased ability to contract/control more muscle fibres
Increases overall force of contraction of muscle
Increase in power
80
High PC stores
use ATP-PC system for longer
work at high intensities for longer
able to complete multiple ballistic skills e.g. explosive push of blocks sprint to finish in 100m
without build up of lactic acid
81
Increased strength of tendons, ligaments & bone density
Less likely to be injured
82
VO2 Max
the maximum amount of oxygen that can be utilised by the body per min
83
Lactate Threshold
the point at which more lactic acid is being produced than removed
84
OBLA
Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation:
the point at which lactic acid enters enters the bloodstream and fatigue sets in
85
Outline the relationship between VO2 Max & Lactate Threshold
Define VO2 Max
Define Lactate Threshold
Lactate Threshold % of VO2 Max
As VO2 Max increases, lactate threshold increases
Trained performer will reach lactate threshold & OBLA later than untrained performer
Because they have increased capacity to transport oxygen
Use aerobic respiration to resynthesise ATP & remove lactic acid via oxdiation quickly
86
Type 1 Muscle Fibres
a high proportion required for aerobic & endurance sport
slow speed of contraction, low force of contraction
87
Type 1 Muscle Fibres Adaptations
High capillary density
Increases number of sites available for diffusion
High myoglobin content
High mitochondria levels
High levels of oxidative enzymes
High levels of triglyceride
88
High capillary density
Increases number of sites available for diffusion
89
High myoglobin content
Allows the muscle to extract increased amount of oxygen from bloodstream
90
High mitochondria levels
Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria, more sites available
91
High levels of oxidative enzymes
Allows rate of aerobic respiration to increase & allows removal of lactic acid to speed up
92
High levels of triglyceride
Can be used to produce fatty acids for energy production
93
Type 2b Muscle Fibres
a high proportion required for anaerobic & explosive sports
fast speed of contraction, high force of contraction
94
Type 2b Muscle Fibres Adaptations
High stores of PC
High stores of glycogen
High levels of anaerobic enzymes e.g. ATPase, Creatine Kinase
Large motor neurons
95
High stores of PC
Allows performer to use ATP-PC system for longer
96
High stores of glycogen
Can be used as an energy source for lactate anaerobic energy system
97
High levels of anaerobic enzymes e.g. ATPase, Creatine Kinase
Allows for breakdown of anaerobic energy sources e.g. ATP & PC
98
Large motor neurons
Allows for contraction of more muscle fibres per nerve impulse, increases force of contraction
99
Explain how redistribution of blood occurs during exercise
State that all 4 receptors detect an increase
* All four receptors send nerve impulses to the vaso-motor control centre (VMCC), in the medulla
- During exercise, the VMCC sends an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses to the pre-capillary sphincters at the working muscles.
- This causes the blood vessels to vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow
- This means that more oxygen is available to the working muscles, so the performer can respire aerobically.
- At the same time, the vaso-motor control centre sends a decreased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses to the pre-capillary sphincters at the digestive system
- This causes the blood vessels to vaso-constrict, reducing blood flow
- This means that more oxygen is available to the working muscles
100
Why should a performer not eat within an hour of performance?
- The digestive system requires oxygen to digest food
- Therefore, the pre-capillary sphincters at the digestive system would vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow.
- This means that less blood, and therefore oxygen, is available for the working muscles
- Therefore, the performer cannot resynthesise ATP via aerobic respiration
- This means the performer must use anaerobic respiration to regenerate ATP.
- Anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid, which causes fatigue.
- This means that the performer cannot perform at high intensities for long periods.
101
Explain what happens to blood flow to the brain during exercise
During exercise, blood flow to the brain stays the same
This is because the brain is always active
Therefore, the brain always require oxygen
102
Explain what happens to the blood flow to the skin during exercise?
Thermoreceptors detect an increase in body temperature
During exercise, the pre-capillary sphincters at the skin vaso-dilate, causing an increased blood flow
This directs blood away from the core and towards the skin
This can decrease body temperature through radiation and sweating
103
Explain what happens to the blood flow to the heart during exercise
During exercise, blood flow to the heart increases
This is because the heart is working harder
Therefore, the heart require more oxygen for respiration
104
Sympathetic
prepare body for exercise
Heart
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during exercise to increase heart rate
- causes increase in cardiac output & allows more oxygen to be transported
Breathing
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during exercise
- increases minute ventilation, allowing them to diffuse oxygen into capillaries at greater rate
Blood vessels:
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
- causing them to vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow to muscles
105
Sympathetic - heart
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during exercise to increase heart rate
- causes increase in cardiac output & allows more oxygen to be transported
106
Sympathetic - breathing
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during exercise
- increases minute ventilation, allowing them to diffuse oxygen into capillaries at greater rate
107
Sympathetic - blood vessels
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
- causing them to vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow to muscles
108
Parasympathetic
prepare body for recovery
Heart
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during recovery to decrease heart rate
Breathing
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during recovery
-causing breathing rate to decrease
Blood vessels:
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
- causing them to vaso-constrict, decreasing blood flow to muscles
109
Parasympathetic - heart
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during recovery to decrease heart rate
110
Parasympathetic - breathing
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during recovery
-causing breathing rate to decrease
111
Parasympathetic - blood vessels
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
- causing them to vaso-constrict, decreasing blood flow to muscles
112
Lung Volumes
tidal volume
inspiratory reserve volume
expiratory reserve volume
residual volume
vital capacity
total lung capacity
113
tidal volume
the amount of air inspired and expired per breath
114
inspiratory reserve volume
the maximum amount of air that can be breathed in
115
expiratory reserve volume
the maximum amount of air that can be breathed ou
116
residual volume
the amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation
117
vital capacity
the maximum amount of air that can be breathed out after maximal inhalation
118
total lung capacity
the maximum amount of air that can be stored in the lungs
(IRV + ERV + RV)
119
Explain how tidal volume & IRV may change during exercise
Tidal volume increases during exercise
This means that the peaks will be higher & more frequent/closer together
This represents deeper & faster breathing
Inspiratory reserve volume decreases during exercise
This is caused by an increase in tidal volume
120
Outline the effect of a continuous period of running on tidal volume
Tidal volume increses during exercise
This means that the peaks will be higher & more frequent/closer together
This represents deeper and faster breathing
121
Identify which 3 lung volumes are used within exercise
ERV, IRV, TV
122
Whilst running, a performer will experience changes in lung volumes. How will each of the volumes change during exercise?
BR - Increases
TV - Increases
IRV - Decreases
ERV - Decreases
VC - No change
123
tidal volume
amount of air breathed in and out per breath
124
respiratory frequency
number of breaths taken per minute
125
minute ventilation
amount of air breathed in and out per minute
126
relationship between tidal volume, minute ventilation & respiratory frequency
minute ventilation = tidal volume x respiratory frequency
127
anticipatory rise
increase in heart rate
prior to exercise
caused by release of adrenaline
128
steady state
steady state will always be a plateau
when performer is providing sufficient oxygen to the working muscle to be able to resynthesise ATP aerobically
129
Explain what would happen to the graph for a performer working at a higher intensity than shown. Justify your answer.
During high intensity exercise, steady state is reached later because the performer needs to resynthesise ATP quicker
Therefore performer uses anaerobic respiration, as it resynthesises ATP quicker than aerobic respiration
Recovery takes longer, as the performer has built up higher levels of lactic acid
130
Explain what would happen to the graph for a performer who is working at the same intensity as shown but who has undertaken several months of endurance training. Justify your answer.
- Trained performer has undergone cardac hypertrophy
- Performer is able to transport oxygen around the body more efficiently
- Steady state is reached sooner, as the performer is able to resynthesise ATP aerobically
- Recovery is quicker because the performer has built up less lactic acid, performer can also use oxidation to remove lactic acid quicker
131
Explain how a cyclists’ increase in minute ventilation allows them to maintain performance throughout the race
- Minute ventilation is amount of air breathed in & out per min
- If MV increases, breathe in more oxygen
- More oxygen will diffuse from alveoli to capillary
- Performer has greater capacity to transport oxygen to muscle, resynthesise ATP aerobically
- Produce less lactic acid, maintain level of performance
132
How oxygen & carbon dioxide move between alveolus & blood capillary
Oxygen
- High PO2 in alveoli & Low PO2 in blood capillary
- Oxygen diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, oxygen diffuses from alveoli to capillary
Carbon dioxide
- High PCO2 in blood capillary & Low PCO2 in alveoli
- Carbon dixode diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from capillary to alveoli
133
How oxygen & carbon dioxide move between blood capillary & muscles
Oxygen
- High PO2 in blood capillary & Low PO2 in muscle
- Oxygen diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, oxygen diffuses from capillaries to muscles
Carbon dioxide
- High PCO2 in muscle & Low PCO2 in capillaries
- Carbon dixode diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from muscles to capillaries
134
Outline the functions of myoglobin
Found in muscles
Stores oxygen
Has an affinity for oxygen
135
State and explain the effects of exercise on gaseous exchange in the lungs
Oxygen
- less oxygen is exhaled during exercise than at rest
- more oxygen is being used by muscle during exercise for respiration
Carbon dioxide
- more carbon dioxide is being exhaled during exercise than at rest
- muscle is producing more carbon dioxide as a waste product
136
Identify the structural features that assist gaseous exchange at the lungs
One cell thick walls: allow for short diffusion pathway
Narrow diameter: allows the red blood cells to travel slowly through the capillary
Large surface area: allows for more sites for diffusion
137
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
CO2 binds to haemoglobin to form carbominohaemoglobin
CO2 is then dissolved in the blood plasma
138
Explain why the aerobic training improves the ability to transport oxygen
- Increased % of alveoli: more sites for diffusion at the lungs
- Increased production of red blood cells: improves capacity to transport oxygen around the body
- Increased myoglobin production: extract more oxygen from blood to muscle, resynthesise ATP aerobically & work at higher intensities for longer
139
Explain the impact of high altitude on a performer’s gaseous exchange
- There is low PO2 at high altitude
- The diffusion gradient between the alveoli & the capillaries is lower than at sea level
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli to capillary at lower rate
- Less oxygen is delivered to working muscles
- Performer must resynthesise ATP anaerobically
- Causes a build up of lactic acid, leads to fatigue
140
Explain how different receptors control a performer’s minute ventilation/ breathing rate/ tidal volume
Chemoreceptors detect a change in blood acidity
Thermoreceptors detect a change in body temperature
Baroreceptors detect a change in blood pressure
Proprioceptors detect muscular contraction
All 4 receptors send nerve impulses to the respiratory control centre (RCC) in the medulla
For MV/BR/TV to increase:
* The RCC sends an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
* This causes MV/BR/TV to increase
For MV/BR/TV to decrease:
* The RCC sends an increased frequency of parasympathetic nerve impulses to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
* This causes MV/BR/TV to decrease
141
Health Related Components
Stamina (cardiovascular endurance)
Muscular strength
Muscular endurance
Flexibility
Body composition
142
Stamina (CV endurance)
The ability to delay the onset of fatigue
The ability to last the full 90 minutes in football match
143
Muscular strength
Applying a force to overcome a resistance
Explosive – When running/sprinting
Static – Used when the performer is stationary e.g. shielding the ball from an opponent
144
Muscular endurance
The ability to performer repeated muscular contractions
A tennis player repeatedly performing a serve/forehand
145
Flexibility
The maximum range of movement around a joint
A gymnast performing the splits
146
Body composition
The proportion of body mass made up of fat, muscle, bone and organs
A sprinter will have a greater proportion of muscle than a marathon runner
147
Skill Related Components
Agility
Balance
Co-ordination
Power
Speed
Reaction time
148
Agility
The ability to change direction quickly
Being able to evade an opponent in rugby
149
Balance
The ability to keep the centre of mass over the base of support
A performer staying on their feet when barged by an opponent in football
150
Co-ordination
The ability to use two or more limbs smoothly and efficiently
Running with the ball and passing in rugby
151
Power
The ability to rapidly apply force
Strength x speed
Pushing out of the blocks in a 100m race
152
Speed
The ability to move the body from one place to another quickly
A tennis player moving across the court to return the ball
153
Reaction Time
The time from the start of the stimulus to the start of the movement
The time it takes a 100m runner to start to push off the blocks when the gun has fired in the 100m.
154
Principles of Training
Specificity
Progressive Overload
Reversibility
Variance
155
Specificity
Making training relevant to the performer’s sport, and their role within the sport
The coach should consider:
o Muscle fibre type
o Muscle groups used
o Energy systems used
E.g. A 100m runner would use plyometric training as it uses the fast twitch type 2b muscle fibres in the legs and uses the ATP-PC system.
156
Progressive Overload
Gradually change training to force physical adaptations
This can be achieved in 4 ways
o Frequency – Refers to how often the performer trains
o Intensity – Refers to how hard the performer trains
o Time – Refers to how long the performer trains for
o Type – Refers to which method of training the performer uses
157
Reversibility
If the performer stops training, then their levels of fitness will decrease
If other principles of training are applied correctly, then this should not happen.
E.g. if a performer stops weight training, then muscular strength will decrease
158
Variance
The coach should vary the methods of training to prevent tedium, which can lead to demotivation.
E.g. changing between continuous and interval training
159
FIIT
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
160
Frequency
Refers to how often the performer trains
The performer can gradually increase the number of sessions per week
E.g. Train 3 times per week instead of 4
The performer could also increase the amount of sets/reps
161
Intensity
Refers to how hard the performer trains
The performer can increase the intensity by increasing the weight/speed/distance
162
Time
Refers to how long the performer trains for
Gradually increase the length of time of the sessions or decrease the period available for rest
163
Type
Refers to the method of training used
The coach should ensure that the training is relevant to the performer
E.g. a 100m runner completing plyometric training.
164
Periodisation
Involves splitting the year up into phases and cycles.
The purpose of periodisation is to peak for a competition;
In order to peak, the performer must taper their training.
Usually based around a world championships or Olympics
165
Phases of Periodisation
Preparation
Competition
Tapering
Transition
166
Preparation
Aim is to improve the components of fitness related to performance E.g. A marathon runner will aim to improve cardiovascular endurance
167
Competition
Aim is to improve skill levels whilst maintaining fitness levels E.g. A sprinter may work on their jumping technique during hurdles.
168
Tapering
The performer will reduce intensity of training and solely focus on skill, to reduce fatigue before competition
169
Transition
Is a period of active recovery, before the next preparation phase. E.g. Foam rolling
170
Cycles of Periodisation
Micro-Cycle
Meso-Cycle
Macro-Cycle
171
Micro-Cycle
Lasts from 1 day to 14 days with an individual goal E.g. Improving technique when driving out the blocks for a sprinter
172
Meso-Cycle
Lasts from 2 to 8 weeks with an individual goal E.g. Improving sprint time of first 30m of a race
173
Macro-Cycle
Lasts 6 months to 4 years with an individual goal e.g. Win the gold medal at the next Olympics
174
Oxygen Deficit
There is not enough oxygen in the muscle to respire aerobically, therefore the performer must respire anaerobically, using the lactate anaerobic system
175
Oxygen Debt
Is also known as EPOC - Excess Post exercise Oxygen Consumption
Consuming oxygen above resting levels after exercise
176
EPOC
1) Fast component: alactacid component
2) Slow component: lactic acid component
177
Fast component of EPOC
Also known as the alacatacid component
Takes around 2-4 minutes and uses 3-5 litres of excess oxygen.
This allows myoglobin stores to be re-saturated.
This means that PC stores can be resynthesised through P + C + Energy
The energy provided to resynthesise PC comes from aerobic respiration
178
Slow component of EPOC
This is known as the lactic acid component.
Some lactic acid is oxidised
Some is shuttled to the liver for the cori-cycle to take place. Whereby Lactic acid is converted into glucose, glycogen and pyruvate.
Some is converted into protein.
Some is removed via sweat and urine
179
Explain the effects of work and recovery on PC stores in the muscle [8 marks]
Work:
* During periods of work, ATP-PC stores will deplete
* This is because the performer is working at high intensities
* This occurs through creatine kinase detecting high levels of ADP in the muscle
* Therefore it breaks down P+C+ Energy
* This energy is then used to resynthsise ATP
Recovery
* During recovery, stores of PC will increase
* This is due to the fast component of EPOC taking place
* Whereby an extra 3-5 litres of oxygen is used to resaturate stores of myoglobin
* This is then used to resynthesise PC stores through P+C+ Energy
* The energy is provided by aerobic respiration
* However, stores are not fully resynthesised because there is not enough time
180
Explain the effects of exercise and recovery periods on the levels of glycogen in an elite performer [4 Marks]
Work
* During periods of work muscle glycogen will deplete
* This is because the majority of energy is provided by aerobic respiration
* Whereby (Process of aerobic respiration)
* This is because the performer is exercising for multiple hours
Recovery
* During recovery, stores of muscle glycogen will increase
* This is because after an event the performer will take on a high carbohydrate meal e.g. pasta
* Additionally, lactic acid that has built during the event will be shuttled to the liver and will be converted back into glycogen and glucose due to the cori-cycle
181
Warm Up Components
The performer will complete a pulse raiser
The performer aims to gradually increase the intensity
There will then be a period of dynamic stretches
Lastly, there will be a sport specific activity. E.g. A netballer passing the ball
182
Warm Up Benefits
A warm increases the performer’s cardiac output, increasing blood flow
This increases O2 delivery to the working muscle
This means the performer will not build as much lactic acid at the start of a game due to respiring aerobically
A warm up increases muscle temperature, which increases muscle elasticity, reducing the risk of injury
A warm up also increases the performer’s arousal levels to optimum, which will improve performance levels.
183
Cool Down Components
The aims to gradually decrease the intensity of the exercise
All exercise will be aerobic
There is then a period static stretching
184
Cool Down Benefits
Completing aerobic exercise after competing, maintains a higher O2 delivery to the working muscle
This allows for the quicker saturation of oxygen in the myoglobin. This allows the fast and slow component of EPOC to take place quicker
Additionally, meaning that blood/lactic acid will not pool in the muscle
Lastly, the calm nature of static stretching helps remove adrenaline from the blood which reduces levels of arousal
This allows the performer to access a parasympathetic state, meaning muscle protein resynthesis will take place quicker
This helps to reduce the risk of DOMS
185
Recovery methods
1) Ice baths
2) Massage/massage gun
3) Nutrition supplementation
186
Ice bath
The performer will sit in a bath full of ice for at least 20 minutes
This causes the blood vessels at the extremities (Arms and legs) to vaso-constrict, reducing blood flow
This redirects blood to the core to protect the vital organs
As blood is closer to the lungs this means it can become more oxygenated
When the performer gets out of the bath, the blood vessels at the extremities vaso-dilate
This means freshly oxygenated blood can flood the area, which helps to flush out any remaining lactic acid
187
Massage/massage gun
Massaging an area helps to increase blood flow to a local area
This increases oxygen and nutrient delivery to the working muscle
This can help improve the rate of lactic acid removal and muscle protein synthesis
188
Nutrition supplementation
The performer will take on a meal high in carbohydrates e.g. pasta, In order to replenish stores of glycogen in the muscles
This reduces the risk of muscle protein being used as an energy source, which reduces the risk of muscle atrophy (Muscle wasting)
They will also have meal that is high in protein e.g. chicken, which will help to speed up muscle protein synthesis
Which speeds up growth and repair of muscle fibres
Lastly, the performer will supplement creatine monohydrate in order to replenish stores of phosphocreatine in the muscle
189
glycemic index
how quickly a food effects an individual’s blood sugar level
190
high glycemic index
fast release of energy for an immediate restore of glycogen
191
low glycemic index
slower release of energy to restore glycogen over a longer period of time
192
carb advantages
*Can be used anaerobically
*Low glycaemic index – slower release of energy to restore glycogen over a longer period of time
*High glycaemic index – fast release of energy for an immediate restore of glycogen
193
carb disadvantages
*Too much is stored as fat
*Consuming a diet rich in carbohydrates leads to a build up of plaque around the lumen in the blood vessels, decreasing blood flow in the working muscles
*Too much fat leads to obesity, which leads to a decrease in the components of fitness
194
protein advantages
*Increase in muscle growth and repair
*Used for power athletes to repair muscles after exercise
*Can be used as an energy source when fats/glycogen stores are depleted
195
protein disadvantages
none
196
fibre
*Endurane athletes
*Slows down the rate that the body takes to break down food
*More effective as it allows for more sustained energy release
197
fats advantages
*Energy source for aerobic respiration
*Slow releasing energy source at low intensity
*Yield more energy per gram than carbohydrates
*Broken down to form fatty acids, which forma acetyl coA and enter the Krebs cycle to form 34 ATP
*Help the body to absorb vitamin A and E
198
fats disadvantages
*Oxygen is required to break down fats so they are not useful at high intensity
*A diet which is high in saturated fats causes plaque to build in the lumen – link to aerobic respiration
*Too much fat leads to obesity, which may reduce all components of fitness e.g. speed, agility
*Too much fat can lead to high cholesterol, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes or heart disease
199
classes of food that are suitable for players who require stamina and why
*Fats – Allow for a slow release of energy through aerobic respiration so the performer can last the full game
*Carbohydrates – Required for a rapid release of energy e.g. if a performer is sprinting in a counter attack
200
classes of food that are suitable for power athletes and why
*Carbohydrates – For a rapid release of energy
*Protein – for growth and repair of muscles
PE
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