1
Q
What is urban ecology
A
“Interactions of organisms, built structures, and the physical
environment, where people are concentrated.” – Forman 2014
2
Q
what are the two assumptions of urban ecology
A
- people are not always or only bad for the environment
- people are part of ecology
3
Q
three types of environment
A
- natural
- physical
- built
4
Q
what is homo sapiens urbanus
A
- the urban tsunami
- the degradation of natural systems
** this is essentially the process of rapid urbanization taking over natural systems
5
Q
urban regions
A
area of active interactions between the city and its surroundings
6
Q
what distinguishes ecology in urban settings - habitats and species
A
- intermixed green and built space
- ornamentals, invasive, others
- generalists thrive
7
Q
what distinguishes ecology in urban settings - patches and areas
A
- rectilinear repetition (e.g. yards)
- impervious surfaces
- pollution
8
Q
what distinguishes ecology in urban settings - corridors and flows
A
- rectilinear transportation networks
- stepping stones
- heavy channelization
9
Q
what distinguishes ecology in urban settings - change
A
- drastic, rapid, human-caused
- species continually arrive, disappear, etc.
- expands directionally
10
Q
what are gradients
A
gradual changes without boundaries
11
Q
what are mosaics
A
landscapes composed of easily distinguishable patches with sharp boundaries between them
12
Q
gradients or mosaics - what is more common in urban ecology
A
mosaics
13
Q
what is grain size
A
he average area or diameter of constituent parts or patches
14
Q
what is resolution
A
the degree of difference and abruptness of
boundaries
15
Q
what are patches
A
usually defined as areas distinct from their surroundings
16
Q
what does hierarchy theory conceptualize?
A
conceptualizes landscapes as composed of relatively isolated levels, each operating at a distinct time and space scale
17
Q
what is a patch, a corridor, and a matrix
A
Patch are areas distinct from their surroundings
Corridors are a linear patch
Matrix means everything else
18
Q
how does change happen within an urban spatial hierarchy
A
Within a spatial hierarchy, change happens faster on lower levels than
on higher levels
* Large = more inertia and stability = more predictability
* Upper levels constrain lower levels
* Lower levels initiate change that can affect higher levels
19
Q
example of urban spatial hierarchy starting with ‘urban region’
A
urban region
urban-region ring
peri-urban (or exurban) area
commercial area
building space
OR
megalopolis
urban region
metro area
city
residential area
neighborhood
housing development, house plot
vegetable garden
20
Q
what does process refer to in urban ecology
A
the physical and biological actions or events that link organisms and their environment
21
Q
what is a pattern in urban ecology
A
“…the spatial arrangement of different land cover types
within a landscape.”
22
Q
relationship between processes and patterns
A
- patterns influence processes
- processes lead to patterns
23
Q
how do humans change landscapes
A
Attempt to control and reduce variability and adaptability
Consume, and over-consume, resources
Degrade patterns and disrupt process
Fragment and shrink habitats
Simplify by linearizing and geometricizing
24
Q
examples of natural processes across a landscape
A
- wind erosion
- animal dispersal
- ground water flow
- water in eroding stream
- water in meandering river
- wind-dispersed seeds, dust
- fire movement
- seasonal migration
- animal foraging for food
- pollinator pollinating flowers
25
how does planning and design impact landscapes
usually create more regular shaped features (e.g., circles, rectangles) on a landscape than long-term trial and error in urban development
26
what is multifunctionality
a new way to provide for sustainable ecosystem services in the
increasingly limited spaces within compact cities. Multifunctionality can
be achieved through intertwining/combining functions, stacking or
time-shifting
27
what are urban ecological processes
The physical and biological actions or events that link organisms and
their environment.
- both natural and anthropogenic
28
types of urban ecological processes
flows and movements trough space
interactions, linkages, and connection
29
what are urban flow and movement patterns
1. air flows
2. water flows
3. self-locomotion
4. motor-powered movement (required outside energy)
30
how does air flow generally
from warm to cool areas
31
how does streamline, turbulent, and vortex airflow occur
streamline - in smooth, parallel layers
turbulent - occurs as wind moves around buildings, which creates eddies and upwards and downwards flows
vortex - cylindrical form
32
how does water flow
Usually gravity-based (i.e, from upslope to downslope)
Impermeable surfaces
Infiltration through surface cracks
Subsurface flows are often interrupted in cities
Deep infiltration leads to the water-table
33
what powers self-locomotion by people
originally powered by the sun
transformed by photosynthesis into organic compounds
consumed as food
metabolized producing energy for movement
34
what is currently the main source of energy for outside-based movement in cities
fossil fuels
35
what are the energy sources for movements and flows in cities
Gravity
Photosynthesis
Fossil fuels
Temperature differences
36
what is urban metabolism
the sum total of the technical and socio-economic process that occur in cities, resulting in growth, production of energy and elimination of waste
37
what are the key propositions regarding urban growth
1. historic cities were constrained by access to current and local solar energy
2. current cities have grown due to access to global and historic energy
38
Describe mature cities and their imports
Mature cities typically have more imports from distant areas than early settlements.
39
explain characteristics of linear urban metabolism
- unsustainable
- inefficient
- city as organism perspective
40
explain characteristics of circular urban metabolism
- sustainable
- efficient
- ecosystem perspective
41
what are the terms used in circuit design language for material flow analysis (hint: 6 terms)
1. external shocks
2. flows
3. consumption process
4. production process
5. internal stocks
6. work gate
42
explain what the different definitions of soil are (because there is not only one definition)
* “loose unconsolidated earth material (regolith) above the bedrock,
thus focusing on the mineral component”– Geology, engineering, etc.
* “the upper portion of this unconsolidated material that is modified by
the biological activity of abundant microbes, soil animals, and plant
roots” - Agriculturalists
43
what is the definition of urban soil
"the unconsolidated material above bedrock in cities and towns, and is composed of a lower mineral zone, plus an upper biological zone of mineral particles mixed with abundant organic matter and organisms"
* depend heavily on recent and historic land use
44
what are characteristics of topsoil
it is the biological zone
45
what are characteristics of subsoil
* Subsoil is the mineral-dominated zone
* Subsoil is usually present around construction projects (e.g., fill),
which does not contain topsoil
46
what are characteristics of natural and semi-natural soils
natural: developed in place; no fill or human chemicals
semi-natural: similar to natural soils, but with aerial deposits of
various chemicals and leaching from human activities
47
what are characteristics of disturbed soils
* compacted (compressed)
* low organic matter
* altered nutrients
* inorganic heavy metals
* organic hydrocarbons
48
how do you remediate soil
- added organic matter (e.g., yard waste, solid waste, sewage, fertilizer)
- addition of topsoil
49
what are the characteristics of soils that affect the services they provide
- aeration: water drainage for engineered object, septic systems, crops, etc.
- compressibility: support for engineered objects
- biodiversity: for roots and soil ecosystems
- ecosystem health: nutrient and chemical cycling
50
what are the core characteristics of urban soils
1. horizontal pattern finely fragmented by construction + usage
2. vertical pattern enriched by layers of fill
3. burried structures + artifacts
4. compaction
5. stormwater diversion + flooding
6. concentrated close of human chemicals
7. elevated pH
8. depauperate diverse vegetation
51
what are decomposers within soil
- fungi
- bacteria
52
what are examples of soil vertebrates
- amphibians
- moles
- shrews
53
how alkaline are urban soils and how does it impact organisims in the soil
Urban soils are typically more alkaline than non-urban soils, which limits the types of organisms found in urban soils.
54
what is the difference between weather and climate
* Weather is the state of the atmosphere in a specific place at a
specific time.
* Climate is the prevailing weather conditions in a specific place
over a long time period.
55
microclimate characteristics of cities
* Radiation: less UV radiation, less solar radiation, greater infrared
radiation
* Heat and temperature: higher temperatures and more heat storage
* Moisture and water: less evapotranspiration, less snow, more total
precipitation
* Airflows: greater turbulence, decreased speed, altered direction
* Sky conditions: less visibility, more haze and clouds
* Pollution: much more
56
what is relative humidity
"the moisture present compared with the amount present if the air were saturated"
57
what is a heat island
a built area with a higher temperature than its surroundings
58
how does ground level ozone impact individual health
bad for health
59
Tree effects on air pollution
▪ “Lungs of the city”
▪ Four main ways urban trees affect air quality:
1. Temperature reduction and other microclimatic effects
2. Removal of air pollutants
3. Emission of VOC and tree maintenance emissions
4. Energy effects on buildings
60
what removes more pollutants from the air - large or small trees
large trees
61
what are watersheds and why are they important
A watershed is an area of land that catches rain and snow and drains
or seeps into a marsh, stream, river, lake or groundwater. Homes,
farms, cottages, forests, small towns, big cities and more can make up
watersheds. Some cross municipal, provincial and even international
borders.
* We need them to provide clean drinking water
* Local economies are typically dependent on healthy watersheds
* Ecosystems and biodiversity also require healthy watersheds
62
where does water flow more predictably
Water usually flows more predictably in cities than in natural areas
Many more human-made water systems in urban areas (e.g. fountains, drains)
63
what are some parts of the urban water cycle
- precipitation
- infiltration
- adsoption to groundwater and plant roots
- septic system and sewage treatment system
- stormwater runoff
- evapo-transpiration
- water vapour in atmosphere
64
what occurs when groundwater lowers due to pumping
subsidence or structural damage to buildings
65
what does rising groundwater cause
- damage to infrastructure, such as sewer systems
66
what are the possible sources of groundwater pollution
- farmlands
- industrial waste
- landfills
- storm water
- human wastewater
- construction fill
- spills and leakage
67
what does sewage do to water bodies
* Insufficient dissolved-oxygen
* Excessive nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen)
* Excessive sediment
* Excessive inorganic and organic toxins
68
what are physical processes to treat pollution
dilution
mixing
flocculation (fine particles clumping together)
sedimentation
thermal breakdown
aeration
69
what are chemical processes to treat pollution
aerobic oxidation
anaerobic oxidation
nitrification
adsorption of metals/toxins
70
what are biological processes to treat pollution
decomposition by bacteria
algae blooms or die-off
depending on species
concentrations
71
what is low impact development
Low impact development typically involves mimicking natural water flow patterns.
72
what does impervious surface do to runoff
increases the amount of runoff because water does not dissolve
73
how do swales work to reduce runoff
Drainage ditches or swales with grass reduce runoff by: increasing friction, infiltration, transpiration, and retention
74
how do urban waterbodies help remove pollutants from storm water
settling
filtration by plants
assimilation (i.e. nutrient uptake by growing plants)
adsorption by soils
decomposition by microbes
75
what are characteristics of wetlands
- plants adapted to wet conditions
- sufficient surface water flow
- saturated soils
- anaerobic decomposition in the soils
76
what are ponds
small water bodies encircled by land”
Small, scarce, heterogenous
Ponds are isolated habitats for a broad range of species
77
what are examples of urban ponds
* Natural pond
* Vernal (ephemeral) pool – dry during dry seasons
* Beaver pond
* Dammed pond
* Swimming pools
78
what are headwaters
where a stream begins
