1
Q
Acoustic Fatigue
A
Stress cracking of a material caused by repetitive vibrations induced by sound.
2
Q
Activated Sludge Sewage Treatment
A
A method of treating organic matter in sewage effluent, using digestion by aerobic bacteria.
3
Q
Aerobic
A
A process or organism that requires oxygen.
4
Q
Albedo
A
A measure of the reflectivity of a surface. More reflective surfaces have higher albedos.
5
Q
Anaerobic
A
A process or organism that doesn’t require oxygen.
6
Q
Bioaccumulation
A
The increase in concentration of a substance in living tissue.
7
Q
Biodegradability
A
The ease with which a material is broken down by living organisms, usually bacteria.
8
Q
Biodegradation
A
The process of breakdown of a material by living organisms, usually bacteria.
9
Q
Biological/Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
A
The number of mg of dissolved oxygen consumed in one litre of water at 20’c in 5 days in the dark?
10
Q
Biomagnification
A
The progressive bioaccumulation of a material along a food chain.
11
Q
Biotic Index
A
A measure of pollution based on the presence, abundance and state of health of selected living organisms.
12
Q
BOD
A
Biological/Biochemical Oxygen Demand.
13
Q
Carcinogen
A
A substance than can cause cancer.
14
Q
Catalytic Converter
A
A device fitted to vehicle exhausts to remove pollutants such as carbon monoxide, oxides of nitration and unburnt hydrocarbons.
15
Q
CFC
A
Chlorofluorocarbons are pollutants that cause ozone depletion and contribute to global climate change.
16
Q
Clean Air Act - 1956
A
UK legislation to control smoke pollution.
17
Q
Critical Group Monitoring
A
A method of monitoring radioactive discharges. If the members of the public that are most at risk are safe, then so is everyone else.
18
Q
Critical Pathway Analysis (CPA)
A
The prediction of the routes that an effluent will take in the environment, to assess pollution risk.
19
Q
Cyclone Separator
A
Types of equipment used to remove suspended particles in gaseous effluents.
20
Q
dB(A)
A
The decibel scale, modified to weight the frequencies to which the human ear is most sensitive.
21
Q
Decibel (dB)
A
The unit of sound used to monitor noise pollution.
22
Q
Degradation
A
The breakdown of a material.
23
Q
Deoxygenation
A
To process of oxygen removal.
24
Q
Diffuse Sources
A
Effluent emissions that come from many sources.
25
Electrostatic Precipitator
Types of equipment used to remove suspended particles in gaseous effluents.
26
Encapsulation
Sealing waste in a solid material such as glass, cement or plastic to prevent its escape.
27
Enzyme Inhibitor
A material that prevents an enzyme from functioning, usually by blocking the active site or changing its shape.
28
Eutrophic
A water body with a high nutrient level.
29
Eutrophication
The natural nutrient enrichment of a water body. It can be accelerated by human actions such as the release of sewage effluent or the use of fertilisers that are leached into water bodies.
30
FGD
Flue Gas Desulphurisation.
31
Flue Gas Desulphurisation
Processes that remove oxides of sulphur from gaseous effluents.
32
Half Life
The time it takes for half the original material to be lost.
33
HCFC's
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons are a group of chemical used to replace CFC's.
34
HFC
Hydroflurocarbons are a group of chemicals used t replace CFC's.
35
Incineration
The breakdown of a waste by burning it.
36
Inorganic Nutrients
Plant nutrients such as compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus such as nitrates and phosphates.
37
Inverse Square Law
The mathematical relationship where increasing the distance from the source reduces exposure to 1/distance squared.
38
Kyoto Protocol - 1997
The international agreement intended to control emissions of greenhouse gases.
39
L1018h
Measure of noise pollution used to monitor road traffic noise.
40
Landfill Tax
A tax to discourage the disposal of waste in landfill sites.
41
Lapse Rate Diagram
A graph to show how temperature changes with altitude; often used to show temperature inversions.
42
Liposolubility
A measure of how easily a substance a substance dissolves in fats and oils.
43
Mobility
A measure of the ease of movement of a material.
44
Montreal Protocol - 1987
International agreement that has controlled the release of ozone-depleting substances.
45
Mutagen
A material that can cause changes in DNA structure.
46
Noise and Number Index (NNI)
A measure of noise pollution used to monitor aircraft noise pollution around airports.
47
Oligotrophic
A water body with a low nutrient level.
48
Organic Nutrients
High-energy nutrients, such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins from plant or animal material.
49
Organochlorides
Synthetic organic substances that include chlorine, such as the pesticide DDT.
50
Organophosphates
Insecticide pesticides, e.g. malathion and parathion.
51
Persistence
A measure of the rate at which a material breaks down and therefore the length of time it remains in the environment.
52
pH
A measure of acidity.
53
Photochemical Smog
An atmospheric pollution event where pollutants from vehicles interact under sunny conditions when there is a temperature inversion.
54
Point Source
Effluent emissions that come from a small number of sources that are usually easily identifiable.
55
Primary Pollutant
A pollutant released by human activities.
56
Primary Sewage Treatment
The removal of organic solids from the fluids during sewage treatment.
57
Pyrethroids
Insecticide pesticides, originally extracted from chrysanthemum flowers.
58
Resonant Frequency
The frequency at which an object naturally vibrates.
59
Scrubber
Types of equipment used to remove suspended particles in gaseous effluents.
60
Secondary Pollutant
A pollutant produced by chemical reaction involving primary pollutants.
61
Secondary Sewage Treatment
The breakdown of the remaining organic matter in the fluids after primary treatment.
62
Smog
Fog or haze intensified by smoke or other atmospheric pollutants.
63
Smoke Control Order
A restriction in large urban areas that reduces smoke emissions.
64
Smokeless Zone
The part of an urban area in which a Smoke Control Order restricts smoke emissions.
65
Solubility
The ease with which the molecules of a material separate and disperse into a liquid. (Water and Lipids are the most common examples).
66
Specificity
A measure of the differing toxicities of a substance on different organisms. A specific substance is very toxic to some organisms and much less toxic to others.
67
Stratosphere
The layer of the atmosphere that absorbs UV and contains the ozone layer. It is above the troposphere at an altitude of approximately 6-30 miles.
68
Synergism
The process where the presence of two materials produces a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects.
69
Systemic Pesticide
A pesticide that is absorbed and transported around the plant in the sap.
70
Temperature Inversion
A situation in the troposphere where the temperature is lower than normal so that warm air lies above cold air.
71
Teratogen
A substance that interferes with gene function in a growing embryo so that a non-inherited birth abnormality is produced.
72
Tertiary Sewage Treatment
The final processes in sewage fluid treatment, e.g. phosphate removal.
73
Toxicity
A measure of how poisonous a substance is, usually caused by enzyme inhibition.
74
Traffic Noise Index (TNI)
A measure of noise pollution used to monitor road traffic noise.
75
Troposphere
The layer of the atmosphere below the stratosphere, from ground level to about six miles.
76
Turbidity
A measure of the cloudiness of water caused by suspended solid particles.
77
Urea Spray
A method of reducing NOx emissions.
78
Vitrification
The process of encapsulating high level radioactive waste in solid glass.
79
Acute Effects
Symptoms/effects appear almost immediately (Short term).
80
Chronic Effects
Symptoms appear a long time after exposure.
81
What factors affect the concentration of water pollutants?
- The size of emissions.
- The volume of the water.
- Residence time of the water.
- Conditions for degradation.
- Dispersal.
82
Effects of thermal pollution in water bodies?
- Reduces the solubility of Oxygen.
- Increases metabolic rate so less energy available for growth.
- Toxicity of pollutants usually increases with temperature.
- Resistance to disease may be reduced.
83
How is thermal pollution controlled?
Condenser water is sprayed in the lower part of a cooling tower. The air is warmed and rises causing an up draught, which draws in more water.
84
What are the causes of oil pollution?
- Vehicle engine leaks.
- Industrial machine oil washed into drains.
- Tankers having their tanks washed out to prevent the build up of tarry residue.
- Tanker accidents at sea.
- Discharge of bilge water.
- Accidental spillages.
- Leakage during exploitation, drilling and extraction.
85
How can oil pollution be controlled?
- Recycle waste lubricating oil.
- Equipment maintenance, will reduce leakage.
- Bund walls, would contain the oil if the tank split.
- Build double-skinned hulls in tankers.
- Tankers with twin engines/fuel tanks/rudders.
- Separate oil and ballast water tanks.
- Improved ship tanker operation.
86
What are the effects of oil pollution?
- It smothers and asphyxiates shore life (E.g. Seaweed).
- Seabirds may drown or asphyxiate.
- Their waterproofing properties may be reduced, causing them to die of hypothermia.
- Cause adult birds to preen more, less time hunting for food for their chicks.
- Prevent oxygen from the air dissolving.
- marine organisms that depend on their sense of smell may have difficulty due to the smell of oil.
87
What techniques can be used to clean up oil spills?
- Inflatable booms, limit the spread of oil slicks.
- Skimmers, rotating wheels stick to the oil.
- Absorbent materials, (straw).
- Chemical dispersants.
- Hot water or steam on beaches.
- Bioremediation, oil to digest the oil.
88
What are the principle properties of pesticides?
- Specificity, don't harm non target organisms.
- Persistence, chemically stable pesticides are likely to have more time to travel and bio accumulate.
- Bioaccumulation, stored faster than their broken down.
- Bio magnification, along the food chain.
- Mobility, more likely to spread and affect other areas.
89
Effects of pesticide pollution?
- Direct, they cause harm to non-toxic species by being toxic. They can inhibit metabolic processes, cause ill health, reduce breeding rates and higher doses may even kill.
- Indirect, harmed by a reduction in food if their food species is affected.
90
What are the 3 different groups of insecticides and what are their effects?
Organochlorines - (DDT) high insect toxicity and low mammal toxicity but they're persistent and liposoluble.
Organophosphates - (Methyl Parathion) not persistent or liposoluble but they have a much higher toxicity to mammals.
Pyrethroids - No problem to mammals but still kill non-target species (Bees).
91
Methods to reduce pesticide pollution?
- Restriction on use.
- Use of non-persistent pesticides.
- Use of more specific pesticides.
- Use of systemic pesticides.
- Biological control/non-chemical techniques.
- Pest resistant crops.
- Better application techniques.
92
What are the main inorganic nutrients that cause pollution?
Nitrates and phosphates.
93
What are the sources of inorganic nutrients?
Nitrates - Very soluble so washed off farmland or used as a preservative in food.
Phosphates - Not soluble but get into water bodies from sewage effluent unless removed by tertiary treatment.
94
What are the effects of inorganic nutrient pollution?
-If converted to nitrites they can cause 'blue-baby'
syndrome in babies or further converted to
nitrosamines which are carcinogenic and can cause stomach cancer.
-Eutrophication.
95
How can inorganic nutrient pollution be controlled?
- Reduced use of nitrate fertilisers.
- Reduced ploughing during heavy rain.
- Use of less soluble, slow release fertilisers.
- Avoid dumping waste manure where nutrients may be leached.
- Phosphates removed by addition of iron sulphate.
- Lakes with phosphate rich sediments may be dredged to reduce the solubility.
96
What are the sources of organic nutrients?
- Sewage works.
- Manure.
- Silage Fluids.
- Leather tanneries.
- Paper mills.
- Food processing plants.
97
What are the effects of organic nutrient pollution?
- Deoxygenation, due to aerobic digestion.
- Pathogens, from sewage which may spread diseases.
- Release of inorganic nutrients, due to their decay.
98
Difference between primary, secondary and tertiary sewage treatment?
Primary - removal of most organic solids. (Sedimentation).
Secondary - Digestion/breakdown of remaining organic matter. (Aerobic digestion).
Tertiary - Additional treatment to remove
phosphates/bacteria. (Addition of Iron sulphate removes phosphates).
99
How is sludge disposed of?
Anaerobically digested and the waste products (mainly methane) can be used as fuel to heat the digester.
100
What are the effects of acid mine drainage?
The acidic drainage water may cause direct harm to living organisms. It can also mobilise toxic heavy metals (E.g. Aluminium or Lead).
101
What can be observed to monitor water pollution?
- Turbidity.
- pH.
- Nitrates.
- BOD.
- Coliform count.
- Biotic indices.
102
What are the dis/advantages of using a biotic indices?
Advantages - Monitor current + past pollution; help trace the source of the pollution; can be very sensitive; don't need expensive monitoring equipment.
Disadvantages - Can be time consuming; results may be difficult to interpret; identification can be difficult.
103
What features of a species make it a good indicator?
- Easy to identify.
- Normally present/common if there is not pollution.
- Widely distributed.
- Easy to find.
104
What are the properties of heavy metals?
- Enzyme inhibition.
- Bioaccumulation.
- Biomagnification.
- Synergism.
- Solubiltiy and pH, more soluble at a lower pH.
105
What pathways lead to the absorption of lead?
- Industry, inhale it or absorb it through skin.
- Water, dissolved into the water from water pipes.
- Paint, children may swallow old flaky paint.
- Petrol, present in exhaust fumes.
106
What are the 3 chemical forms that Mercury can be found in?
- Elemental liquid mercury, easily absorbed in the lungs.
- Inorganic compounds, absorbed in the gut/through skin.
- Organic compounds, absorbed in the gut/lungs as vapour.
107
What human activities cause pollution?
- Resource extraction.
- Resource use.
- Manufacturing.
- Disposal of unwanted goods.
- Food production.
108
What factors affect the behaviours of pollutants in the environment?
- Mobility.
- State of matter.
- Chemical form.
- Timescale of action.
- What they affect.
- Direct/Indirect action.
109
What are the major pollutant properties?
- Toxicity.
- Specificity.
- Persistence.
- Biodegradability.
- Mobility.
- Solubility.
- Bioaccumulation.
- Biomagnification.
- Synergism.
- Mutagenicity.
- Carcinogenicity.
- Teratogenicity.
110
What are some examples of toxic pollutants?
- Carbon Monoxide.
| - Lead.
111
What is an example of a pollutant with a high specificity?
Pyrethroids.
112
Give examples of persistent and non-persistent pollutants.
Persistent - DDT, CFC's & Heavy Metals.
| Non-Persistent - Sewage and Pyrethroids.
113
Give an example of a highly mobile pollutant and one that's not mobile.
Mobile - CFC's
| Not - Smoke.
114
Examples of liposoluble pollutants.
- Organochlorine insecticides.
| - PCB's.
115
Pollutants that bioaccumulate.
- Organochlorine insecticides.
| - PCB's.
116
An example of pollutants with synergistic effects would be?
Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur Dioxide.
117
What is the difference between a Primary pollutant and a secondary pollutant?
Primary - directly released by human activities (E.g. CO2 released by burning fossil fuels).
Secondary - produced by the interaction of other materials released by human activities. (E.g. PAN's)
118
What are the 3 things needed to form PAN's?
- Oxides of Nitrogen.
- Unburnt hydrocarbons.
- Ozone.
119
Examples of direct and indirect pollutants?
Direct - Acid rain damages leaf cuticles; cruse oil kills seabirds; DDT causes thin eggshells and kills insects.
Indirect - CFC's causes the release of Cl causing ozone depletion; CO2 causes sea levels to rise.
120
Difference between a point and diffuse source?
Point - released by a small number of easily identifiable sources.
Diffuse - Very large numbers of smaller sources.
121
What is the natural pH of rain water?
5.6
122
Effects of acid rain on non-living things?
- Corrode metals causing damage to railways, metal railing, water pipes, pylons, overhead power lines.
- Damage building made of limestone as the acids dissolve the exposed surface layers.
123
Direct effects of acid rain to living organisms?
They're toxic to living organisms. They denature proteins and can inhibit enzyme action. Especially in...
- Cells inside leaf stomata.
- Plant roots hairs.
- Germinating seeds.
- Fish eggs and gills.
- Invertebrates with exoskeletons.
- Lichens.
- SO2 can cause respiratory problems humans.
124
Indirect effects of acid rain on living organisms?
The solubility of many ions is changed when acidity is increased (Will lead to the loss of desirable ions(Ca & Mg) and the mobilisation of toxic ones(Al & Pb)).
125
What are the major gases that cause acid rain and where are their major sources?
- Sulphur dioxide creates sulphurous acid comes from the burning of coal and oil.
- Sulphur trioxide creates sulphuric acid from burning coal and oil.
- Nitrogen oxides creates nitric acid from vehicles.
- Ozone oxidises SO2 to SO3 from photochemical reactions.
126
What are the sources of tropospheric ozone?
Nitrogen Dioxide broken down by UV and the Monatomic O2 joins with the Diatomic O2 to produce O3.
127
What are the main sources of smoke?
- Burning vegetation.
| - Burning fossil fuels.
128
What are the effects of smoke on the climate and on non-living objects?
- Smoke may increase the albedo of the atmosphere. it could also deplete the ozone layer in the stratosphere.
- Smoke can damage the surface of the structure if it reacts with it. Cleaning dirty building can be a major expense.
129
What are the effects of smoke on living organisms?
-Can cause irritation and bronchitis if inhaled. The chemicals can kill the cilia making it more difficult to clear inhaled particles and bacteria increasing he risk of infections. Some of the chemicals may be carcinogenic. Smoke suspended of that settles on leaves may reduce photosynthesis.
130
What is a smog formed by and what conditions make the formation of fog more likely?
Formed by the interaction of smoke and fog. A temperature inversion makes the formation of fog more likely.
131
How do pollutants become concentrated during a temperature inversion?
In normal conditions, the temp drops as altitude increases so warm pollutant gases are less dense so they rise, dilute and disperse. During an inversion, the air near the ground is cooler than the air above so pollutant gases may be denser meaning the pollutants can't disperse and can become more concentrated.
132
What conditions make a temperature inversion more likely to form?
- Valleys, the sheltering effect may prevent winds dispersing the cooler air.
- Clear night skies, clouds re-radiate IR towards the ground, keeping it warm so it cools down easily.
- Mist/fog during the day, preventing the ground warming up.
- Low wind speeds, reduce the mixing of layers of air.
133
What do photochemical smog's involve?
They involve the chemical interaction of vehicle exhaust emissions during sunny conditions, usually during a temp inversion that causes the pollutant to become more concentrated.
134
How are photochemical smog's formed and what do they produce?
The formation of NO2 which can then be converted into PANs.
135
How are PANs formed and what can they cause?
Formed by the reaction of NO, O3 and Unburnt hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight. They're toxic at low concentrations where they cause eye irritation, breathing difficulty and increased risk of heart attacks.
136
What are the general methods to control air pollution?
- Legislation.
- Clean air acts, with smokeless zones.
- The montreal protocol.
- Kyoto protocol.
- Landfill tax.
- Reduced use of energy resources and minerals.
137
How can the oxides of sulphur be controlled?
- Fuel desulphurisation.
- Flue gas desulphurisation, flue gases reacted with crushed limestone which produces gypsum which can be used as building plaster (Dry).
138
How can the oxides of Nitrogen be controlled?
- Low temp combustion.
- Catalytic converters.
- Urea sprays.
139
How can smoke pollution be controlled?
- Electrostatic precipitators.
- Cyclone separators.
- Scrubbers.
- More efficient combustion.
140
How can methane pollution be controlled?
- Reduced use of landfill sites.
| - Gas collection during fossil fuel extraction.
141
How are CFCs controlled?
- Use of alternative methods.
- Alternative techniques.
- Disposal of waste CFCs.
142
What is noise?
Unwanted or damaging sound.
143
What are the effects of noise pollution on non-living objects?
- Acoustic fatigue, structural weakening caused by vibrations at an objects 'resonant frequency'.
- Shock impacts.
144
What are the effects of noise pollution on living organisms?
- Hearing damage.
- Stress, ulcers, heart disease etc.
- Behavioural changes.
- Disturbance of breeding birds.
- Reduced feeding success for animals that use sound.
- Bird song less effective for establishing territories/attracting mates.
145
How can aircraft noise pollution be controlled?
- Airport location and design (e.g. away from major population centres, acoustic insulation for local housing, baffle mounds).
- Aircraft design (Quieter engines -bypass ratio engines, reduced turbulence).
- Aircraft operations (Flight time restrictions, altitude limits, constant decent angle).
146
How can train noise be controlled?
- Polished tracks to reduce vibration, ballast stones underneath to absorb noise.
- Better suspension.
- Aerodynamic cowl.
- Grease lubrication of wheels/rails.
147
What are the sources of road traffic noise?
- Wheel vibration through the ground.
- Tyre noise.
- Engine and exhaust noise.
- Air turbulence.
148
How can road noise pollution be controlled?
- Vehicle design, Exhaust pipe baffles, acoustic insulation.
- Road design, routing away from residential areas, noise absorbing road surfaces, traffic calming.
- Driving style, gentle acceleration.
149
Sources of industrial noise?
- Air compressors.
- Metal-on-metal impact.
- Drills.
- General machinery.
- Mine blasting.
150
Control of industrial noise pollution?
- Ear protection for workers.
- Acoustic insulation around machinery.
- Remote operation.
- Timing of outdoor operations.
151
What are the health risks of an isotope with a short half life?
They release all their radiation quickly and so are dangerous but hey don't pose a danger for long so short-term precautions may be sufficient to protect workers/the public.
152
What are the health risks of an isotope with a long half life?
They pose a danger for a long time but they don't emit much radiation in any given time period so the level of danger may be quite low. The greatest concern is those with half lives of several decades and radiation release is relatively high, people may be exposed for most of their lives and short-term precautions are inadequate.
153
What are the types of radiation?
- Alpha.
- Beta.
- Gamma and X-rays.
- Neutrons.
154
What is the difference between Gonadic and Somatic effects?
- Gonadic, damage to cells in the ovaries or testes.
| - Somatic, damage to general body cells.
155
What is the difference between exposure and contamination?
- Exposure, when an object absorbs ionising radiation because it's within range of a source of radiation.
- Contamination, when an object comes in direct contact with the source of radiation and picks up dome of that material.
156
What are the sources of radiation exposure?
- Cosmic radiation.
- Gamma rays from the lithosphere.
- Internal radiation from the body.
- Radon from the ground.
- Medical exposure.
- Occupational exposure.
- Weapons fallout.
- Consumer products.
- Industrial effluent charges.
157
What ways are radioactive materials and ionising radiation used?
- Nuclear reactors to make electricity.
- Cancer treatments.
- Radio-labelling.
- Sterilisation of hospital equipment.
- Measuring thickness of paper/steel.
- Insect pest control.
158
Methods to reduce exposure of ionising radiation?
- Closed sources.
- Protective clothing/remote handling techniques.
- Use of absorbers
- Distance from source (inverse square law).
- Reducing period of exposure.
- Worker monitoring (E.g. personal dose meters).
159
What factors will be taken into account during a critical pathway analysis?
- The state of the effluent.
- Density.
- Wind speed and direction.
- River flow and ocean currents.
- Geology, porous/permeable.
- Effect of pH and O2 availability on solubility.
- Bioaccumulation.
160
What are the sources of solid wastes?
- Mining and construction wastes.
- Municipal waste, domestic and commercial.
- Industrial waste.
- Agricultural waste.
161
How does increased affluence lead to increased volumes of solid waste.
- Can afford to buy more/not reuse products.
- Built in obsolescence.
- Disposable products.
- Over packaging.
162
What factors affect the choice of a disposal method?
- Population density.
- Per capita waste production.
- Level and type of industry.
- Availability of land.
- Availability of recycling technology.
- Level of environmental awareness.
- Legislation.
163
Disadvantages of landfill?
- The resource value of the waste is lost.
- The sites use large areas of land.
- Organic matter in the site will decay anaerobically and release methane gas.
- Toxic leachate may leak from poorly managed sites.
164
What are the features of a well-managed landfill site?
- Plastic liners to prevent leachate leakage.
- Leachate collection and treatment.
- Perimeter fence to prevent blowing litter.
- Regular covering with soil to reduce pest problems.
- Water sprays to reduce dust and odours.
- Possible collecting of methane.
165
What needs to be taken into account during the reclamation and remediation of spoil heaps?
- Topography.
- Stability.
- Drainage.
- Lack of nutrients.
- pH.
- Toxic materials.
- Sites contaminated with petrochemicals.
- Toxic leachates.
- Heavy metals.
166
Disadvantages of incineration?
- If the wastes are wet, fuel may be required to achieve full combustion.
- If combustion isn't hot enough, dioxins may be released.
- Atmospheric pollution is increased.
167
How is nuclear waste dealt with?
Vitrification, mixed with molten glass and when it solidifies, the glass encapsulates the waste which is then enclosed in stainless steel containers and buried deep underground/in concrete buildings.
168
Disadvantages of recycling?
- Can be energy intensive (E.g. with transport).
- Labour costs.
- Separation may be difficult (E.g. alloys).
- Identification.
- Need for public co-operation.
Environmental Studies A2
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