How is “power” defined
Power: an actor’s (especially the state’s) capacity to make decisions, enforce rules, and influence outcomes within and beyond its territory.
Two lenses of power
Internal power (state institutions; law-making and enforcement)
External power (treaties, global economics, international organizations)
Characteristics of a state
A territory defined by borders: a geographic space with recognized boundaries (even if disputed).
A resident population: people who live permanently or semi-permanently in the territory.
A territory administered by a government: institutions that manage public affairs, make rules, and provide services.
Why the number of states increased in the 20th century
Decolonization: former colonies gained independence and became new states.
Often involved new borders and debates over legitimacy, identity, and resources.
Collapse of the Eastern bloc: the breakup of communist states and the Soviet Union created new independent countries.
legislative power
branch responsible for adopting laws.
Key functions:
debating priorities
passing budgets
making/changing laws
Why it matters: controlling lawmaking shapes rights, responsibilities, and resources.
Examples: voting, environmental, labor, digital privacy laws.
judicial power
Judicial power: interprets laws.
Courts apply laws to cases and set precedents.
Why it matters: interpretation can expand or limit rights and authority.
Disputes over civil liberties, equality, and emergency powers often reach courts.
executive power
Executive power: branch responsible for applying laws and daily administration.
Includes:
running ministries,
implementing policies, and
managing public services.
Institution exercising executive power: the government.
Pressure groups (definition,
organized groups that attempt to influence state decisions without governing.
Influence strategies:
lobbying
public campaigns and protests
court challenges
expert reports
Pressure group examples
Multinational firms: investment decisions, supply chains, jobs, taxes, regulation pressure
Environmental groups: policy advocacy, public mobilization, legal action
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): human rights, humanitarian aid, development, transparency
Globalization (definition,
increasing integration of national economies through the cross-border movement of goods, services, technology, capital, and labor
Globalization main effect on relations among states,
Globalization limits state control—global markets and corporations hold significant influence over energy.
Globalization has made states more interconnected and interdependent, increasing cooperation through trade and institutions while also intensifying competition for economic and political power.
Globalization examples in daily life)
globalized supply chains & products (food, technology), multinational retail & brands (online shopping), outsourcing, communication.
Gas prices global
Gas prices are global: Oil is traded worldwide, so wars, shortages, or demand spikes raise local prices.
Oil’s global market limits government control over domestic gas prices.
Governments avoid harsh regulations or high taxes that might drive oil companies elsewhere.
Fast action: Governments must respond quickly (releasing reserves, offering consumer relief).
Ratification of international treaties (effect on states)
Ratification of international treaties: when a state formally agrees to be bound by an international agreement.
Effects on state power:
states may accept rules limiting certain choices (trade, environmental, human rights)
treaties create shared standards and predictability
What promotes the opening of markets worldwide?
End of the Cold War (late 1980s–1990s): countries began shifting toward market policies and expanded trade.
Growth of global institutions and norms encouraging trade (rules-based trade, investment protections, dispute mechanisms).
Shift towards economic liberalization: lowering trade barriers and encouraging private enterprise.
Creation of economic zones: regional groupings/groups of countries that agree to reduce barriers to trade (tariffs, taxes, strict rules).
Technological development reduces cross-border business costs and time.
Key drivers:
Faster shipping (containerization, tracking, freight networks).
Digital communication (internet, video conferencing, cloud computing).
Automation (software coordinating global production).
Multinational firms (reasons host states may welcome them,
Multinational firm (MNF/MNC): a company operating in multiple countries through subsidiaries, production sites, or services.
Reasons host states may welcome them:
Job creation (direct and indirect employment).
Source of income (tax revenue, fees, exports).
Technology transfer and training for local workers.
Development of local business networks.
multinational firms:why firms may choose to relocate their activities,
Common reasons:
Lower costs (labor, energy, land, taxes, compliance).
Market access (proximity to consumers; avoid tariffs; faster response).
Specialized inputs (skills, suppliers, materials, expertise clusters).
Risk management (diversify locations to reduce disruption vulnerability).
outsourcing vs offshoring)
Relocation: moving production or services to another region or country.
Outsourcing: hiring an external party (local or foreign) to perform tasks, focusing on specialization and cost-efficiency.
Offshoring is relocating business processes to another country to leverage lower costs or 24/7 operations, while maintaining control.
Outsourcing is about who does the work, while offshoring is about where
