1
Q
Urinary System Functions
A
forms urin and stores it until it is eliminated from the body (micturition)
2
Q
Components of the Urinary System
A
- kidneys
- ureters
- urinary bladder
- urethra
3
Q
Where are the kidneys located?
A
- waist level between 12th thoracic vertebra and 3rd lumbar vertebra
- retroperitoneal
4
Q
Functions of the kidneys
A
- reg of blood ionic composition
- reg of blood pH
- reg of blood volume
- reg of blood pressure
- maintenance of blood osmolarity
- production of hormones
- regulation of blood glucose levels
- excretion of wastes and foreign substances
5
Q
Layers of kidney external anatomy (deep to superficial)
A
- renal capsule
- adipose capsule
- renal fascia
6
Q
Renal capsule
A
- thin, fibrous membrane
- covers outer surface of the kidneys
7
Q
Adipose capsule
A
- adipose tissue
- between renal capsule and renal fascia
- provides protection and padding (cushion)
8
Q
Renal fascia
A
- dense irregular connective tissue
- outermost layer that attaches kidney to abdominal wall
9
Q
Renal hilum
A
- indentation at the concave border
- ureter, renal artery, renal vein, nerves, and lymphatic vessels pass through
10
Q
Layers of kidney internal anatomy (superficial to deep_
A
- renal cortex
- renal medulla
- renal sinus
11
Q
Parts of renal medulla
A
- renal pyramids
- renal columns
- portion of nephrons
- papillary ducts
- renal papilla
12
Q
Parts of renal sinus
A
- minor calyx
- major calyx
- renal pelvis
13
Q
Renal cortex
A
- contain portion of the nephrons
- contain a portion of the renal columns
14
Q
Renal pyramids
A
cone shaped
15
Q
Renal columns
A
extend from renal cortex and separate renal pyramids
16
Q
Papillary ducts
A
openings in renal papilla that drain urine
17
Q
Renal papilla
A
apex of renal pyramid that is pointed towards renal sinus
18
Q
Minor calyx
A
adjacent to renal papilla; receive urine from papillary ducts
19
Q
Major calyx
A
many minor calyces drain urine into a major calyx
20
Q
Renal pelvis
A
large cavity that major calyces drain into; continuous with ureter
21
Q
Blood flow through kidneys
A
- renal artery
- segmental arteries
- interlobar arteries
- arcuate arteries
- interlobular arteries
- afferent arterioles
- glomerular capillaries
- efferent arterioles
- peritubular capillaries
- interlobular veins
- arcuate veins
- interlobar veins
- renal vein
22
Q
Ureters
A
- 2 long, narrow muscular tubes
- extend from each kidney to the urinary bladder
- transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
- enter the inferior posterior wall of the bladder at an oblique angle
- urine propelled through ureters by peristalsis, hydrostatic pressure, and gravity
23
Q
Urinary Bladder
A
- hollow muscular organ
- distends to store urine and expels it into urethra
- detrusor muscle
- rugae
- tirgone
- internal urethral orifice
24
Q
Detrusor muscle
A
smooth muscle within wall of bladder; contracts to force urine out of bladder
25
Rugae
folds in epithelial lining of bladder
26
Trigone
- funnel shaped
| - 2 urethral openings and internal urethral orifice
27
Internal Urethral Orifice
anterior opening into urethra
28
Urethra
- tube carrying urine from internal urethral orifice to the exterior of the body
- discharges urine from the body
- external urethral orifice
- internal urethral sphincter
- external urethral sphincter
29
External Urethral Orifice
opening through which urine exits the body
30
Internal Urethral Sphincter
involuntary smooth muscle that controls passage of urine from urinary bladder to urethra
31
External Urethral Sphincter
voluntary skeletal muscle that permits passage of urine to external urethral orifice
32
Male Urethra Length and Regions
- long (15-20 cm)
| - has 3 regions: prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, spongy (penile) urethra
33
Prostatic urethra
prostate gland
34
Membranous urethra
urogenital diaphragm
35
Spongy (penile) urethra
penis
36
Female Urethra Length
short (4 cm)
37
Nephron
- functional unit of the kidney
| - contains renal corpuscle, renal tubule, and collecting ducts
38
Renal corpuscle
- filters blood
- located in renal cortex
- contains glomerulus, glomerular capsule, capsular space
39
Glomerulus
capillary network
40
Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule
cup-shaped epithelial membrane surrounding glomerulus
41
Capsular space
- glomerular cavity between glomerulus and Bowman's capsule
| - where filtrate enters
42
Renal tubule
- modifies filtrate to form urine
| - contains proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule
43
Proximal convoluted tubule
located in renal cortex
44
Loop of Henle (nephron loop)
- extends into renal medulla
| - has ascending and descending limb of loop of henle
45
Distal convoluted tubule
located in renal cortex
46
Collecting ducts
- many distal convoluted tubules converge here
| - many collecting ducts unite into papillary ducts
47
Where does filtration occur?
renal corpuscle
48
Where does reabsorption occur?
renal tubule and collecting duct
49
Where does secretion occur?
renal corpuscle and collecting duct
50
What affects the amount of filtrate?
diameter of afferent arteriole and pressure within glomerular capillaries
51
Types of nephrons
Cortical nephrons and Juxtamedullary nephrons
52
Cortical nephrons
- majority of nephrons
- short loops of henle: descend slightly into medulla
- receive blood supply from peritubular capillary network
53
Juxtamedullary nephrons
- PCT, Corpuscle, DCT: closer to medulla
- long loops of henle: descend deep into medulla
- 2 portions of ascending limb: thin and think ascending limb
- receive blood supply from peritubular capillary network AND vasa recta
54
Flow of Filtrate/Urine through Urinary System
I don't know
55
Kidney Histology
- glomerular (bowman's) capsule
- proximal convoluted tubule
- loop of henle
- distal convoluted tubule
- collecting ducts
56
Glomerular (Bowman's) Capsule
- visceral epithelial layer
- parietal epithelial layer
- podocytes
57
Visceral epithelial layer
filtration membrane adjacent to glomerulus (simple squamous epithelium)
58
Parietal epithelial layer
forms funnel-like structure that collects filtrate in capsular space (simple squamous epithelium)
59
Podocytes
foot-like projections on visceral layer that wrap around glomerular capillaries
60
Proximal convoluted tubule
simple cuboidal epithelium
61
Loop of Henle
- descending limb
| - ascending limb (thin and thick sections)
62
Descending Limb (loop of henle)
simple squamous epithelium
63
Ascending limb thin section (loop of henle)
simple squamous epithelium
64
Ascending limb thick section (loop of henle)
simple cuboidal epithelium to low columnar cells
65
Distal convoluted tubule
simple cuboidal epithelium
66
Collecting ducts
simple cuboidal epithelium
67
Ureters, Urinary Bladder, Urethra Histology
- mucosa (epithelium and lamina propria)
- muscularis (inner longitudinal and outer circular)
- adventitia
68
Ureter and Urinary Bladder histology
mucosa contains transitional epithelium (distends to accomodate urine)
69
Urethra histology
- transitional epithelium to stratified columnar epithelium
| - pseudostratified columnar epithelium to stratified squamous epithelium
70
Urinalysis
analysis of the physical, chemical, and microscopic characteristics of urine and measures urine volume
71
Specific gravity
- the weight of a volume of substance divided by the weight of the same volume of distilled water
- indicates the amount of "stuff" in substance
- urine's SG ~1.001-1.035
72
Osmolarity
a measure of the total number of dissolved particles per liter of solution
73
Normal volume of urine
one to two liters per 24 hours; considerable variation in normal volume
74
Normal color of urine
yellow or amber color; urine color is darker in concentrated urine
75
Normal turbidity of urine
transparent in freshly voided urine; will turn cloudy after standing; microbes, pus, epithelial cells, or crystals may cause cloudiness in fresh urine
76
Normal oder of urine
aromatic when fresh; ammonia-like after standing because of breakdown of urea to ammonia by bacteria
77
Normal pH of urine
normal range is 4.6-8.0, with an average of 6.0; high-protein diets produce an acidic urine; vegetarian diets produce alkaline urine
78
Normal specific gravity of urine
normal range is 1.001-1.035; low specific gravity represents dilute urine; higher values represent a concentrated urine
79
Urea levels in urine
byproduct of protein catabolism normally found in the urine; excessive excretion of urea may be indicative of an abnormal increase in protein degradation that could lead to muscle wasting and negative nitrogen balance
80
Creatinine levels in urine
a metabolite of creatine phosphate catabolism in muscle; creatinine is a normal constituent of the blood and urine
81
Uric acid levels in urine
formed in the catabolism of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA); uric acid is very insoluble and tends to crystallize, contributing to the production of kidney stones
82
Ammonia levels in urine
a product of protein catabolism that is either excreted in the urine or is used as a substrate to form urea; like urea, excessive ammonia excretion may reflect abnormal levels of protein degradation
83
Inorganic ions in urine (K, Na, Cl, Ca, Mg)
excretion of inorganic ions depends upon diet, urine pH, and hormonal influences (especially for calcium)
84
Albuminuria
Constituent: albumin
usually indicative of pathology of the filtration barrier since albumin is a large protein that is not normally filtered at the renal corpuscle
85
Glucosuria
Constituent: glucose
usually indicative of diabetes mellitus; glucose is normally reabsorbed by renal tubule cells; if glucose is excessively high in the blood, it will be excreted in the urine
86
Hematuria
Constituent: red blood cells
indicative of damage to the filtration barrier or trauma to the urinary tract
87
Pyuria
Constituent: white blood cells
indicates infection of the kidney or urinary organs
88
Ketonuria
Constituent: ketone bodies
present in urine in conditions of starvation, diabetes mellitus, and low carbohydrate diets
89
Urobilinogenuria
Constituent: urobilinogen
an end product of hemoglobin metabolism, excessive levels may indicate a pathological lysing of red blood cells, or a liver disorder
90
Bilirubinuria
Constituent: bilirubin
is formed in the catabolism of hemoglobin; high levels of bilirubin in the urine may indicate an excessive destruction of red blood cells
91
Bacterial Infection
Constituent: microbes
the presence of various bacteria in the urine is indicative of infection and inflammation of the urinary tract
92
What can dehydration and hemorrhaging cause?
increase in blood osmolarity and decrease in blood volume and pressure
93
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin Function
increases water reabsorption (facultative water reabsorption)
94
Facultative water reabsorption
increase water permeability in DCT and collecting duct by inserting more aquaporins in the membrane
95
Effects of alcohol (diuretic)
- decreases ADH release from posterior pituitary
| - consequences are less facultative water reabsorption leads to dilute urine
96
Aldosterone function
increases reabsorption of Na, Cl, H20, and secretion of K (obligatory water reabsorption)
97
Obligatory water reabsorption
increases activity of Na transporters in DCT and collecting duct to increase Na reabsorption, and water follows through osmosis (water is obligated to follow the Na)
98
Effects of caffeine (diuretic)
- inhibits Na reabsorption in renal tubule
| - consequences are less obligatory water reabsorption leads to dilute urine
99
Renal Calculi
kidney stones/nephrolithiasis
100
Renal Calculi symptoms
flank or back pain that can radiate, dysuria, discolored urine, malodorous urine, nausea and vomiting, frequent urination
101
Renal Calculi types of stones
calcium, struvite, uric acid, cystine
102
Renal Calculi risk factors
dehydration, family history, high protein or high salt diet, digestive diseases that can affect absorption of calcium and water
103
Renal Calculi diagnosis
Imaging (CT and X-Ray)
104
Renal Calculi treatments
active surveillance with increased hydration and diet changes, shockwave lithotripsy, laser lithotripsy, stent placement, stone manipulation and basketing
105
Urinalysis Results
review on slides
106
Male Reproductive System Functions
- produce sperm and male sex hormone (testes)
- transport store, and assist in maturation sperm (ducts)
- secrete most of the liquid portion of semen (accessory sex glands)
- a passageway for ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine (penis)
107
Male Reproductive System Components
- testes
- ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra)
- accessory sex glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands)
- supporting structures (scrotum, penis)
108
Scrotum (Scrotal Sac)
- supporting structure for testes
- scrotal septum
- dartos muscle
- cremastor muscles
109
Supporting Structure for Testes
pouch of loose skin that is suspended from the root of penis outside the abdominopelvic cavity
110
Scrotal Septum
internally divides scrotum with 1 testis in each section
111
Dartos Muscle
- smooth muscle within scrotal septum and scrotal wall
- wrinkles and raises scrotum when contracted
- function: tightens scrotum to reduce heat loss
112
Cremastor Muscles
- within spermatic cords
- skeletal muscle that are extensions of the internal obliques
- adjusts distance of testes from body wall (contraction when cold/relaxation when hot)
113
Testes (Testicles) External Anatomy
- male gonads: paired, oval glands in scrotum
- endocrine and exocrine functions
- 3 layers
114
Endocrine Function of Testes
produce and release male hormones called androgens (testosterone)
115
Exocrine Function of Testes
produce and release sperm (spermatogenesis vs. spermiogenesis)
116
Layers of Testes
- tunica albuginea
- tunica vaginalis
- spermatic fascia
117
Tunca Albuginea
- white fibrous capsule: dense fibrous connective tissue
| - extends into testes: forms septa that divide testes into lobules
118
Tunica Vaginalis
extension of peritoneum
119
Spermatic Fascia
loose connective tissue
120
Testes (Testicles) Internal Anatomy
- seminiferous tubules (spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis)
- straight tubules
- rete testis
- efferent ducts
- epididymis
- leydig cells (interstitial endocrinocytes)
- Sertoli cells
121
Seminiferous Tubules
- located within the lobules of the testes
- spermatogenesis: formation of spermatids through meiosis (occurs in walls of seminiferous tubules)
- spermiogenesis: maturation of sperm, spermatid to sperm (occurs in seminiferous tubules)
122
Straight tubules
short ducts
123
Rete Testis
network of ducts
124
Efferent ducts
coiled
125
Epididymis in Anatomy
- 1st part of male duct system
| - further maturation of sperm
126
Leydig Cells (interstitial endocrinocytes)
- produce and secrete androgens, primarily testosterone
- located within interstitial spaces of testes (triangular shaped spaces between seminiferous tubules)
- stimulated by LH
127
Sertoli cells
- provides chemical environment for spermatogenesis and assists cells to move from basement membrane to lumen of seminiferous tubules
- located within walls of seminiferous tubules
- stimulated by FSH
128
Male Duct System
- ducts of the testes
- epididymis
- vas deferens (ductus deferens)
- ejaculatory duct
- urethra
129
Ducts of the Testes
straight tubules, rete testis, efferent ducts
130
Epididymis Duct
- site of sperm storage
- reabsorbs degenerated sperm or any sperm not ejaculated after several months (stereocilia)
- curves over posterior of corresponding testis
- propels sperm into vas deferens by peristaltic contractions of smooth muscle
131
Vas Deferens (ductus deferens)
- travels through spermatic cord into pelvic cavity
| - broadens into an ampulla that joins with seminal vesicle duct into ejaculatory duct
132
Ejaculatory duct
passes through prostate gland
133
Urethra
- prostatic urethra: prostate gland
- membranous urethra: urogenital diaphragm
- spongy (penile) urethra: penis
134
Spermatic Cord Functions
- ascends out of scrotum
| - enters pelvic cavity through inguinal canals (passageways in the anterior abdominal wall)
135
Spermatic Cord Contains
- vas deferens
- testicular artery
- pampiniform plexus (vein network)
- nerves
- lymphatic vessels
- cremastor muscle
136
Pampiniform Plexus (vein network)
- drains testes and carries testosterone into circulation
| - helps control testis temperature by allowing evaporation of heat from artery
137
Accessory Sex Glands
- seminal vesicles (60% of semen volume)
- prostate gland (25% of semen volume)
- bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands (15% of semen)
138
Seminal Vesicles
- posterior to urinary bladder
- fluid from seminal vesicle flow through seminal vesicle duct
- alkaline fluid: neutralizes acidic male urethra and female vagina
- fluid contains fructose (energy source for sperm) and prostaglandins (stimulate sperm motility and muscular contractions in female repro tract)
139
Prostate Gland
- surrounds prostatic urethra inferior to urinary bladder
- slightly acidic fluid
- fluid contains proteolytic enzymes (increases sperm viability and motility)
- Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy (BPH)
140
Bulbourethral (Cowper's) Glands
- within urogenital diaphragm on either side of membranous urethra
- alkaline fluid: neutralizes acidic male urethra
- secretes mucus: lubricates urethra and glans penis (pre-ejaculate)
141
Penis
- cylindrical shaft that contains spongy (penile) urethra: passageway for urine and ejaculation of semen
- suspensory ligament of penis
- 3 cylindrical masses
- glans penis
142
Suspensory Ligament of Penis
- attach penis to pubic symphysis
| - support penis when erect
143
3 cylindrical masses (erectile tissue)
- Corpora Cavernosa Penis (2): contains blood sinuses
| - Corpora Spongiosum Penis (1): contains spongy urethra and blood sinuses
144
Glans Penis
- extension of corpus spongiosum
- covered with prepuce (foreskin): circumcision
- external urethral orifice
145
Erection
blood sinuses will engorge with blood
146
Spermatogenesis
- formation of haploid spermatids
- Ratio is 1:4
- 2n (diploid): 46 chromosomes
- n (haploid): 23 chromosomes
147
Spermiogenesis
- maturation of sperm: development of haploid spermatids into sperm
- components: head, mid piece, and tail
148
Head of Sperm
- nucleus: contains chromosomes
| - acrosome: contains hydrolytic enzymes that allow sperm to penetrate oocyte
149
Midpiece of Sperm
mitochondria: produce ATP for motility
150
Tail of Sperm
flagellum: propels sperm
151
Female Reproductive System Functions
- produce secondary oocytes and hormones, including estrogen and progesterone (ovaries)
- transport secondary oocytes to uterus (uterine tubes)
- protect and nourish developing embryo and fetus (uterus)
- receive penis during sexual intercourse and provide passageway for childbirth (vagina)
- synthesize, secrete, and eject milk for newborn (mammary gland)
152
Female Reproductive System Components
- ovaries
- uterine tubes
- uterus
- vagina
- external genitalia
- mammary glands
153
Ovaries
- female gonads: paired, oval-shaped glands located on either side of uterus
- endocrine and exocrine systems
154
Endocrine Functions of Ovaries
produce and release hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
155
Exocrine Functions of Ovaries
produce and release secondary oocytes (ovulation)
156
Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes/Oviducts Functions
- receive and transport secondary oocyte to superior part of uterus
- provide a route for sperm to reach ovum
157
3 Regions of Uterine Tubes/Oviducts
- infundibulum
- ampulla
- isthmus
158
Infundibulum
- distal portion of uterine tube
- fimbriae: finger-like projections
- produces a small current from swaying that helps oocyte to come into uterine tube
- ectopic pregnancy
159
Ampulla
- longest region (2/3 length)
| - fertilization
160
Isthmus
- proximal to uterus
| - narrower lumen and thicker walls compared to infundibulum and ampulla
161
What type of epithelium is the uterine tube lined with?
ciliated columnar epithelium
beating of cilia and peristaltic, smooth muscle contractions help zygote move through tube
162
Uterus
- superior to urinary bladder
- site of implantation of fertilized ovum, development of fetus, labor, source of menstrual flow
- 3 regions
- 3 layers
163
3 Regions of Uterus
- fundus
- body
- cervix (internal Os, cervical canal, external Os)
164
Fundus
dome-shaped superior portion and meets uterine tubes
165
Body
largest region of uterus
166
Cervix
narrow region that opens into vagina
- internal Os
- cervical canal
- external Os
167
Internal Os
opening between uterus and cervix
168
Cervical Canal
cavity with cervix
169
External Os
opening between cervix and vagina
170
3 Layers of Uterus
- endometrium
- myometrium
- perimetrium
171
Endometrium
- inner vascular layer lining uterine cavity
| - includes stratum functionalis and stratum basalis
172
Stratum Functionalis
- sloughs off during menstruation
- epithelial layer + endometrial glands
- increases in size each month to prepare for zygote (stimulated by estrogen and progesterone)
173
Stratum Basalis
- creates new stratum functionalis after each menstruation
| - remains after menstruation
174
Myometrium
- thickest layer of uterus
| - has 3 smooth muscle layers (circular, oblique, longitudinal)
175
Perimetrium
thin outer layer (part of visceral peritoneum)
176
Female Glands
- skene's (lesser vestibular) glands
| - bartholin (greater vestibule) glands
177
Skene's (Lesser Vestibule) Glands
- ducts are near urethra: lubricate urethra
- homologous to prostate gland
- antimicrobial
178
Bartholin (Greater Vestibular) Glands
- near vagina: lubricates vagina with mucous
| - homologous to Cowper's glands
179
Mammary Glands
- modified sweat glands
- surrounded by adipose tissue
- has external and internal structures
180
External structures: Mammary Glands
- Areola
- Nipple
- Lactiferous Duct Openings
181
Areola
circular pigmented area around nipple
182
Nipple
pigmented projection
183
Lactiferous Duct Openings
where milk emerges
184
Internal structures: Mammary Glands
- alveoli
- lobules
- lobes
- mammary ducts
- lactiferous sinuses
- lactiferous ducts
185
Alveoli
milk-producing glands
186
Lobules
clusters of alveoli
187
Lobes
made up of lobules
188
Mammary Ducts
drain one lobe
189
Lactiferous Sinuses
drain mammary ducts
190
Lactiferous Ducts
drain lactiferous sinuses
191
Flow of Milk
- alveoli
- mammary ducts
- lactiferous sinuses
- lactiferous ducts
- ejected (nipple)
192
Oogenesis
- formation of haploid ova
- 2n (diploid): 46 chromosomes
- n (haploid): 23 chromosomes
193
Primary Oocyte Division
- occurs before birth but stops at prophase I
| - finishes meiosis I during puberty (each month)
194
Secondary Oocyte Division
- begins meiosis II but stops at metaphase II after ovulation
- complete meiosis II after fertilization
195
Ovarian Histology Regions
- germinal epithelium
- cortex
- medulla
196
Ovarian Germinal Epithelium
simple epithelium
197
Ovarian Cortex
contains follicles
198
Ovarian Medulla
contains connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves
199
Granulosa Cells
secrete estrogen
200
Theca Cells
provide the precursor for granulose cells to produce estrogen
201
What happens after ovulation?
Graafian follicle becomes corpus lute (secretes progesterone) and later into corpus albicans if the ovum is not fertilized
202
Primordial Follicles
contain primary oocytes surrounded by follicular cells
203
Primary Follicles
contain primary oocytes surrounded by follicular cells and granulose cells
204
Secondary Follicles
contain primary oocytes and antrum (follicular fluid)
205
Graafian Follicles (Mature Follicles)
contain secondary oocytes
PSIO 202
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