Pragmatics
The study of how language is affected by the situation in which it is used, of how language is used to get things or perform actions, and of how words can express things that are different from what they appear to mean
Mitigating device
Expression used to soften an imposition,
‘could you please close the door’
‘please be quiet for a minute’
FTA (face threatening act)
Utterance/action which threatens a person’s public image
Positive politeness strategy
Showing solidarity with another (I really like the way you’ve done this) make individuals feel good about themselves, boost self-esteem of others -> liked back
Negative politeness strategy
Appealing to the hearts negative, give illusion of choice
Basically anything focusing on ensuring the hearer’s freedom of choice can be a negative politeness strategy.
Off-record
Involves indirectness and ambiguity, where the speaker implies their message rather than stating it explicitly
Bald on-record
A direct speech act using an imperative construction without any, mitigation strategies.
[communicating in a direct and explicit manner, without using hedges, indirectness, or politeness strategies. The speaker conveys their message clearly and and straightforwardly,]
Direct speech acts
SA where form corresponds with function
(sit down, did the boss arrive?)
Indirect speech act
SA where form does not correspond with function
(would you like to take a seat? I wonder where put my keys)
Generic
Expression, can be understand without context (here and there = anywhere, you = anybody)
Deictic
pointing words
Personal Deictic
Forms used to point to people:
I, you, she, them, it
Temporal deixis
forms used to point to location in time:
now, then, today, last week, next Tuesday
Spatial deixis
Forms used to point to a location in space
Decitic centre
The reference point used to interpret the meaning of deictic terms, normally the speaker’s location (in time and space)
Proximal
Near the speaker
Distal
Far from the speaker
Presuppostion
An unstated background assumption that assumes to be true (survives negotiation)
When did you stop playing tennis - the presupposition is the person did play tennis (what used to happen)
Lexical
the assumption that, in using one word, the speaker can act as the other meaning (word) will be understood
- Mary stopped running (she used to run)
- Are you late again (you were late again)
- stop, again, still, before, are taken to presuppose another (unstated concept)
Existential
An assumption that something exists
The car was broken, the book is new
Factive
Assumption that information stated after certain words (know, realise, regret, glad, recall) is true
- She didn’t realise he was ill (he was ill)
- we regret telling him (we told him)
- I wasn’t aware that she was married (she was married
Non-factive
The assumption that some information stated after certain words (dream, imagine, pretend) is not true
- he pretends to be ill (he is not ill
- we imagined that we were in London (we were not in London)
Structural
the assumption associated with the use of certain structures
- WH-question constructions
- The listener perceives that the information is necessarily true or intended as true by the speaker
Counterfactual
Assumption that what is presupposed is not only untrue, but is the opposite of what is true, or contrary to facts
- If you were my daughter, I would not allow you to do this (you are not my daughter)
- If I were rich, I would buy a Ferrari (I’m not rich)
- They wish they could go on vacation now (they cannot go on vacation now)
- I wish I had studied medicine (I did not study medicine)
