1
Q
What is Cranial Nerve II, its function and modality
A
Optic Nerve
Function: Vision
Modality: Sensory
1
Q
What is the structure and function of the retina?
A
The retina is the innermost nervous tissue on the posterior surface of the eye containing two types of photoreceptors (rods and cones.) Comprised of the fovea and the optic disk.
1
Q
What happens to excess glucose existing in the body that is not required for energy and is not converted to glycogen for storage?
A
It is converted into fatty acids.
1
Q
What is Cranial Nerve III its function and modality
A
Occulomotor Nerve, Eye Muscles, Motor
1
Q
What is the term for the temperature range in which a heterothermic endotherm has the lowest constant metabolic rate?
A
Thermoneutral zone
1
Q
What is the Q10
A
Q10 is the measure of by how much the metabolic rate increases in every 10 degree increment in temperature (it is not linear.)
1
Q
What taste do Type I Taste Receptor Cells detect?
A
Salty
1
Q
What taste do Type II Taste Receptor Cells Detect?
A
Umami, Sweet, Bitter
1
Q
In what order do nitrogenous wastes require water?
A
Ammonia (very toxic)
Urea (kind of toxic, uses 10x less water than ammonia)
Uric acid (saves water, concentrated but needs quite a bit of energy.)
2
Q
What are glial cells?
A
Glial cells are cells present within the central and peripheral nervous systems functioning in the structural and metabolic support of nervous tissue.
2
Q
Describe speciation by post-fertilisation reproductive isolation.
A
Post-fertilisation reproductive isolation describes the inability of animals from different species to interbreed successfully, either:
- Sperm are transferred but fertilisation fails
- Fertilisation occurs but the hybrid dies (hybrid mortality)
- The hybrid survives but is partially or completely sterile and unable to perpetuate the species
3
Q
Define an analogous structure.
A
An analogous structure is a structure that has evolved via convergent evolution to serve a particular function, but is not from the same evolutionary origin e.g. the wing of a bird and the wing of a dragonfly
4
Q
What does the parasympathetic nerve control in the eye?
A
- Accomodation for near vision
- Contraction of the circular iris sphincter muscles in bright light via the pupillary light reflex
4
Q
What happens to gated ion channels in:
- Resting Membrane Potential
- Depolarisation
- Repolarisation
- Hyperpolarisation
A
- RMP: Voltage-gated Na+ channel inactivation gate is closed. Activation gates in both Na+ and K+ channels are both closed.
- Depolarisation: Voltage-gated Na+ channels quickly open activation gate, rapid Na+ influx.
- **Repolarisation: **Inactivation gate of voltage-gated Na+ channels closed, Activation gate of K+ voltage gated channels open. Net efflux of K+.
- Hyperpolarisation: Activation gate of K+ voltage channels stil open, continued K+ efflux.
4
Q
Describe the transduction of sound in the semicircular canals.
A
Ampulla at the base of the semicircular canal containing a cupula. The semicircular canals are filled with endolymph fluid akin to that in the cochlear duct, with a higher concentration of K+ outside the cell. When angular acceleration occurs, the inertia of the endolymph displaces the cupula, causing the stereocilia to bend towards or away from the kinocilium. Bendig towards the kinocilium causes the opening mechanogated voltage channels, causing influx of K+ causing depolarisation, action potential causing neurotransmitter release to the vestibulocochlear nerve which transmits an impulse to the brain. If the stereocilia bend away from the kinocilium, the opposite occurs.
5
Q
What is a bone nodule embedded within a tendon at points of compression, for example over joints?
A
A sesamoid bone.
5
Q
What does plasma have that interstitial fluid doesn’t?
A
PROTEINS
8
Q
Describe four qualities of rods
A
- Provide ability to see black and white in low light conditions
- High sensitivity to light
- 100 million per retina
- Low visual acuity
9
Q
Explain the function of the semicircular canals
A
The semicircular canals detect angular acceleration in three planes:
- Rotation in the transverse plane (around the cervical vertebra)
- Rotation in the coronal plane (tilting the head)
- Rotation in the sagittal plane (nodding the head)
The inertia of the endolymph displaces the cupula of the ampulla, causing bending of the stereocilia away from the kinocilium, opening mechano-gated ion channels, causing K+ to enter the cell (higher K+ concentration outside the cell), causing depolarisation, causing opening of Ca2+ channels, causing neurotransmitter synthesis and release etc.
10
Q
What two functions do neuromasts have in fish?
A
- Located within the lateral line and detect movement through water
- In conjuction with electrical signals produced from the tail organ, conducts active electroreception to navigate in murky waters and locate prey
10
Q
What are the features of vertebrate nervous systems?
A
- Highly cephalised
- Dorsal hollow nerve cord
- Hollow cavities (ventricles in the brain and spinal cord central canal)
- Nervous system often encased within protective bone or cartilaginous structure
11
Q
Why is core body temperature regulated only a few degrees below the temperature at which thermal death occurs?
A
Physiological function is linked to the rate of biochemical processes, and therefore performance is enhanced at higher temperatures.
11
Q
What is an animal’s genotype?
A
An animals genotype describes the genes contained within its DNA, affecting what will be expressed.
11
Q
What is the effect of increasing altitude on air pressure and partial pressures?
A
Increasing altitude causes a decrease in overall atmospheric pressure, therefore as atmospheric pressure is reduced partial pressures of the gases within it will have reduced. The percentage composition of the air has not changed, just the density.
12
Function of the midbrain
Controls sensory functions and controls reflexes to sensory input
13
Explain how the eye accomodates for distant viewing.
Lack of parasympathetic nervous stimulation causes the ciliary muscles to remain relaxed, causing the zonular fibres to remain tight, causing the lens to be flattened.
15
What is Cranial Nerve VIII, its function and modality?
Vestibulocochlear nerve
Function: Hearing and equilibrioception
Modality: Sensory
16
What is the structure and function of the sclera?
The sclera is the loose connective tissue on the outermost surface of the majority of the eye making up the white of the eye
17
What window does the stapes oscillate against?
The oval window, because you don't have a round foot to put in the stirrup.
18
What direction of movement does the saccule detect?
Vertical Linear Acceleration (Up/Down)
19
What is Cranial Nerve VII its function and modality
Facial Nerve, Motor: Facial Muscles, Sensory: Taste, Modality: Both
20
What is Cranial Nerve IV its function and modality
Trochlear, Eye muscles, Motor
20
What do Merkel's Discs detect and where are they located?
Located in the superficial hairless skin, detect pressure and texture
21
Describe the physiological law of Bone Remodelling
Bone remodelling describes the deposition or loss of bone in response to the stresses placed on the bone. Osteoclasts dissolve mineralised bone and osteoblasts deposit new bone. Bones extend by endochondral ossification of hyaline cartilage at the epiphyseal plate.
23
What is an adaptive niche?
The ecological role that an organism has in its community: what and where it eats, and what eats it.
24
When is fluid flow increased and how does this affect velocity?
Fluid flow is greatest when there is laminar, unidirectional flow. Flow increases when radius/cross sectional area increases and increases when pressure gradient increases.
Velocity = Flow rate/Area
25
Function of the Pons
Relays information between the cerebellum and the cortex and regulates breathing and sleep
26
What are the distinguishing features of Chordates?
* Ventral heart
* Dorsal hollow nerve cord
* Caudal tail
* Pharyngeal slits
* Dorsal, supporting notochord
27
What is Cranial Nerve X its function and modality?
Vagus Nerve, Function: Controls lower vital organs and has sensory functions, Modality: Both
29
How do Type II TB Receptor Cells communicate with nerves?
Through ATP, either directly to the nerve or to the adjacent Type III cells.
30
Cranial Nerve I, function and modality
Olfactory Nerve
Function: Smell
Modality: Sensory
30
What is Cranial Nerve VI its function and modality
Abducens, Eye Muscles, Modality: Motor
31
What does bright light do to the light pigment rhodopsin?
Rhodopsin contains opsin and retinal, which in bright light dissociate from one another, causing an reduction in cGMP, causing increased efflux of K+ and a reduced influx of Na+, causing hyperpolarisation.
32
Define evolutionary gigantism
Evolutionary gigantism occurs when species exist within an environment of a large continental size, dictating the large upper limit to which the animal can grow.
33
What are the functions of the plasma membrane?
* **Physical isolation:** separation of the inside from the outside of the cell
* **Regulation of exhange:** the membrane controls the movement of ions, gases, nutrients, molecules and wastes between the cell and the ECF
* **Communication:** plasma membranes detect changes in the ECF by receptors binding to stimuli present on the outer surface of the cell membrane
* **Structural support:** Plasma membrane maintains the cell's shape by forming bonds with intracellular cytoskeletal proteins found within the cell's cytoplasm
34
Function of the hypothalamus
Regulates hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland, regulates circadian rhythms
35
What is the primary function of a myelin sheath?
Myelin acts as an electrical insulator, increasing conductance as the current leakage across the axon membrane is reduced.
35
Function of the Cerebral Cortex
Information processing/perception of input signals
36
What do Meissner's Corpsucles detect and where are they located?
Located in superficial hairless skin, detect flutter/stroking of skin
37
What are strategies for homeothermic endotherms in a hot environment?
* **Evaporative water loss:** Sweating or panting (losing water contained within air in the lungs) conveys a large amount of thermal energy loss
* **Temporal heterothermy: e.g. DIURNAL HETEROTHERMY **e.g. camels allow their body temperature to fluctuate with ambient temperature throughout the day to reduce heat loss via evaporative water loss
* **Increase conductance** via **reduction in tonic constriction of the arterioles to the body surface and constrict arteriovenosal shunts to prevent blood from bypassing capillaries**, especially **handy in animals with large extremities with large surface area e.g. hares** - quite a lot of heat lost through the ears
38
Describe four qualities of cones
* Provide ability to see colour but only in bright light conditions
* Low sensitivity to light
* 3 million per retina
* High visual acuity
39
What is Cranial Nerve V its function and modality
Trigeminal, Motor: Jaw and Mouth Muscles, Sensory: Facial Sensations, Modality: Both
41
What is a tissue?
A tissue is a group of closely related cells performing interrelated/similar functions
42
What is the function of a tight junction and where would you find one?
A tight junction is a junction between epithelial cells restricting the movement of material between the cells, found in the intestines.
44
What are Canon's four postulates of Homeostasis?
1. Nervous system preserves the "fitness" of the internal environment. Fitness = conditions that provide normal function.
2. Tonic level of activity. Nervous input turns down or turns up activity e.g. vasoconstriction/vasodilation
3. Antagonistic control exists for systems not under tonic control i.e. the endocrine system (insulin/glucagon) or parasympathetic/sympathetic nervous system
4. Chemical signals can have different effects in different tissues e.g. hormones are receptor dependent (some receptors may change the effect of the hormone.)
46
Name the 5 types of epithelia
* Protective epithelium (skin and oral cavity)
* Exchange epithelium (capillaries and alveoli)
* Transport epithelium (exchange of non-gaseous materials - selective)
* Ciliated - specialised for moving fluid across a surface (oviduct)
* Secretory - synthesis and release of products into the environment, either endocrine or exocrine
48
What do the Pacinian Corpuscles detect and where are they located?
Located deep in the skin and detect high frequency vibrations
49
What is the descending loop of Henle permeable to?
Water
50
What order are sound vibrations conducted in the inner ear ossicles?
Malleus, incus, stapes
51
What is Cranial Nerve XII its function and modality?
Hypoglossal Nerve, Function: Tongue Muscles, Modality: Motor
52
What are the responses of mechanoreceptors to stimuli of increasing intensity
* More intense stimuli activate a greater number of receptors via recruitment
* Rate of action potentials produced per minute increases
* Therefore more neurotransmitter release
54
What lobe of the mammalian cerebral cortex is highlighted in the image below?
The Occipital Lobe
54
What is the phenotype?
The actual expression of an animal's genotype, what is visibly observed in an animal.
56
What is the function of an astrocyte?
Astrocytes are glial cells found within the central nervous system that:
* Function in the metabolic support of neurons by providing nutrients
* Form part of the blood-brain barrier
* May proliferate to repair localised areas of damage to nervous tissue.
58
What distinguishes osmolarity and tonicity?
* **Osmolarity:** Accounts for the total concentration of solutes present, passive movement of water against pressure gradient, down concentration gradient
* **Tonicity:** refers to the concentration of impermeable solutes only!
59
Describe sympatric speciation
Sympatric speciation occurs in any environment where there are a number of adaptive niches into which animals of the same species can radiate into and eventually develop into separate species.
60
Define pre-mating mechanisms of evolution
Pre mating mechanisms of evolution are the mechanisms that prevent the evolution of a new species prior to mating, including:
* Potential mates meet but do not mate
* Potential mates do not meet (seasonal/habitat isolation)
* Potential mates attempt to mate but cannot (mechanical isolation)
61
In which bodily fluids are the following in approximately equal concentrations?
Na+, Cl-, HCO3-
INTERSTITIAL AND PLASMA
62
64
How do Type III TB Receptor Cells Communicate with Nerves?
NOT ATP
Via neurotransmitter synthesis and release (Serotonin)
65
What do Ruffini's endings detect and where are they located?
Located deep in hairy skin and detect stretch.
66
What is a desmosome?
A desmosome is an anchoring junction that connects a cell to another cell.
67
What lobe of the mammalian cerebral cortex is highlighted in the image below?
Parietal Lobe
67
Describe the structure and function of a tendon
* Consist of parallel arrangements of Type I Collagen fibres (providing great tensile strength) contained within a synovial sheath
* Anchor muscle to bone
68
What is allopatric speciation?
Allopatric speciation is the development of different types of species developing as a result of geographical separation, due to drift and different selection processes.
70
In which bodily fluid are the following highest:
K+, proteins/large anions
INTRACELLULAR FLUID
71
Name the four types of tissues in the vertebrate body
* Epithelium
* Connective
* Muscle
* Nervous
72
What is Cranial Nerve IX its function and modality
Glossopharyngeal, Motor: Swallowing (Pharynx), Sensory: Taste, Modality: Both
73
What direction of movement does the utricle detect?
Horizontal acceleration (Backwards/Forwards)
74
Function of the Cerebellum
Integrates sensory, motor and vestibular inputs e.g. equilibrioception
75
Function of the thalamus
Controls the transfer of sensory information from the periphery to the cortex
77
List three conditions you would need to control to ensure you measure the Basal Metabolic Rate of a dog.
1. Ensure the dog is in a post-absorptive state to ensure no additional metabolic heat is being used in Specific Dynamic Action
2. Assess any additional energy requirements of the dog (e.g. lactation/pregnancy status)
3. Ensure the temperature is not too cold so that no additional metabolic heat is generated to maintain a constant internal temperature
4. Ensure the dog is lying down at rest so no additional energy demands are used in movement
78
What is the mineral name of the crystals in bone?
Hydroxylapatite crystals
79
What is the ascending loop of Henle permeable to?
Ions
81
What do Nociceptors detect?
Detect tissue-damaging sensations, chemicals e.g. antigens/infections, mechanical sensations, temperature sensations (e.g. burning)
82
Function of the Medulla Oblongata
Regulation of blood pressure, breathing and digestion
84
What is a gap junction and where would you find one?
A gap junction is a cytoplasmic bridge between two or more cells allowing for electrical continuity, for example intercalated discs observed in cardiac muscle.
85
Describe transduction of sound in the utricle/saccule
Occurs in the same way as the Organ of Corti/Semicircular Canals BUT:
* Mechanoreceptor stereocilia/kinocilia extend into a gelatinous layer containing small CaCO3 crystals called otoliths. The forces created by the otoliths in response to the linear acceleration cause the movement of the stereocilia. AP's transmitted via neurotransmitters to the vestibular division of the vestibulocochlear nerve.
86
What taste do Type III Taste Receptor Cells detect?
Sour
87
Function of the Spinal Cord
Mediates reflex arcs (monosynaptic potential or polysnaptic potentials)
White matter = axons, Grey matter = cell bodies
Dorsal Horn = sensory nerves
Ventral Horn = motor nerves
88
Describe transduction of sound in the Organ of Corti
Oscillations in the cochlear membranes interacting with the perilymph fluid within the vestibular duct causes the stereocilia within the endolymph of the cochlear duct to bend either towards/away from the kinocilium, causing AP or no AP. APs get transmitted to the vestibulocochlear nerve.
90
Define adaptive radiation
Adaptive radiation is the process of adaptive evolution in which variations of a single species fill different niches and eventually become new species
91
Name the major components of a ligament
* Parallel arrangements of Type I Collagen fibres
* Interspersed with elastin
* Anchor bones to bones
92
What is Cranial Nerve XI its function and modality
Accessory Spinal Nerve, Function: Head/neck muscles, Modality: Motor
93
What is the effect of ADH?
ADH moderates the permeability of the collecting duct to water by binding to receptors stimulating production of aquaporin proteins therefore reabsorption of water.
94
Define Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintainence of a constant internal environment despite changing external conditions.
95
Which lobe of the mammalian cerebra cortex is highlighted?
Frontal lobe
97
What are the key distinguishing features of skeletal muscle?
* Fibres exist in parallel arrangements
* Peripheral nuclei that can form a synctium (fused myocytes forming a multinucleated cell)
98
What lobe of the mammalian cerebral cortex is highlighted in the image below?
Temporal Lobe
99
Explain how the eye accomodates for near vision
Parasympathetic nerve stimulation triggers the ciliary muscles to contract, causing the zonular fibres to relax and the lens to round up.
100
What are the functions of plasma membrane proteins with examples?
* **Structure:** connect the membrane and cytoskeleton together e.g. connections to collagen
* **Transporters:** integral membrane proteins responsible for movement of material in/out of the cell including aquaporin proteins, permeases, ion channels, carrier proteins etc
* **Receptors:** proteins present within the membrane that activate biochemical pathways in response to binding to ligands e.g. neurotransmitter receptors
* **Enzymes**: catalyse reactions e.g. ATP synthase
101
Function of the Corpus Callosum
A large collection of axons that connect the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
102
What factors affect flow resistance and how?
* Tube length increases resistance
* Tube radius decreases resistance
* Viscosity increases resistance
* Turbulent flow increases resistance (as it mixes the medial flow with the resistant radial flow)
103
Describe three ways in which a homeothermic endotherm can reduce their heat loss in a cold environment
1. Increase fur to provide insulation to reduce heat loss via conduction (or use blubber, a thick layer of subcutaneous fat to which the blood supply can be withdrawn to prevent heat loss in water.)
2. Shivering thermogenesis - uncontrolled contraction of muscles to generate heat
3. Exhibit regional heterothermy to prevent heat loss to the extremeties by reducing their temperature to reduce heat loss via conduction (e.g. the legs/feet of a seagull.)
104
What occurs in the PCT?
Conducts **reabsorption by passive and active transport,** and some **secretion via active transport** (including some electrolytes, waste products, water-soluble vitamins e.g. Na+, Vit C.)
106
What are the three ducts within the cochlea of the inner ear?
* Vestibular Duct (contains perilymph)
* Tympanic Duct (contains perilymph)
* Cochlear Duct (contains endolymph)
107
What are pertrubing solutes and how do they differ from counteracting solutes?
Both pertrubing and counteractive solutes inhibit macromolecule function, but counteractive solutes aren't damaging when in the presence of other solutes when present in combination.
BMS107
flashcards
Decks in class (1)
# Cards
