What are the functions of pressure groups?
-Seek to influence policy making
can be short term eg passing a law or broader eg setting the political agenda
-Don’t seek to hold political office, instead influence the elected
-Can campaign against opposition eg compete for resources
-Opportunity for political participation and representation
-Use varied tactics from direct action to discreet lobbying
What are the main categories of pressure groups?
Their status
-insider vs outsider groups eg how they relate to the political establishment
Their purpose
-interest groups vs promotional groups eg do they defend a specific cause or the interests of their members
What are insider groups?
-Pressure groups who hold close ties and contacts with govt
- Widely agreed they have more power and influence than outsider gps
-eg British Medical Association is said to have privileged access to the corridors of power
Is insider status flexible?
-Gps can move from insider to outsider status or vice versa
-dependent on govt in power and the particular issue
-eg in pre 1997 Labour govts trade unions were treated as insider gps. They were consulted on industrial and economic issues. ‘Beer and sandwiches at No 10.’ Blair’s New Labour project distanced itself from trade union ties. Under Corbyn, the 2019 manifesto promised to ‘repeal anti-trade union legislation’. Under Conservative govts, trade unions never enjoyed the same insider status
Are all insider political pressure groups partisan?
-Some long established and non party political pressure groups eg the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals have close ties with Parliament through involvement with the All Party Parliamentary groups
-The RSPCA funds cross party groups and in 2017 contributed £16,500 to the All Party Parliamentary Group for Animal Welfare. The APGAW then gave oral evidence to an inquiry on abattoirs and wrote a letter to the Chinese ambassador about the dog meat trade.
What role do insider groups representing big business play?
-Groups like the Confederation of British Industry
-In the aftermath of the 2008 banking crisis the UK govt offered support eg loans and temporary renationalisation worth £850 billion
-Reflect the influence of the banking and business lobby and its insider status
How can insider pressure group status be subdivided?
CORE INSIDERS- have a longstanding bilateral relationship with policy makers eg National Farmers’ Union
SPECIALIST INSIDERS- insider status within a narrow area in which their specialist knowledge is required eg British Meat and Poultry Federation
PERIPHERAL INSIDERS- insider status but are rarely needed by govt eg the Stillbirth and Neonatal Death Society
PRISONER GROUPS- almost impossible to break away from insider status, either because of reliance on govt funding eg Historic England or because they are themselves a public body
What are the advantages of insider pressure group status?
PROXIMITY TO GOVERNMENT- good channels of communication with govt which can enable informal lobbying before draft legislation is drawn up to ensure their views are represented
RESOURCES- well resourced and funded so can hire professional lobbyists
GOVERNMENT INQUIRIES- invited to take part in select or public bill committees eg the King’s Fund gave evidence to the Health Select Committee inquiry into emergency services
HISTORIC POLITICAL TIES- a few, eg trade unions and Labour, have close historical and institutional ties with major political parties
LAWS AND REGULATIONS- public consultation processes eg during the Green Paper legislation stage. insider pressure groups often provide detailed technical information. this gives insider groups direct influence over legislation
What are the disadvantages of outsider pressure group status?
PROXIMITY TO GOVERNMENT- getting too cosy with govt institutions can lead to policy entrapment and inability to criticise the political establishment. can diminish a group’s independence and freedom of action
RESOURCES- superior resources don’t guarantee success. pressure groups can’t air political ads and have limited involvement in election campaigns
GOVERNMENT INQUIRIES- outsider groups can also be called to give evidence to govt inquiries eg UK Cladding Action Group provided evidence to the Communities select committee
HISTORICAL POLITICAL TIES- when such a party is out of office, pressure groups associated with it are left outside the corridors of power
LAWS AND REGULATIONS- pressure groups members are often those directly affected by legal changes so have a ‘policy axe to grind’ and shouldn’t play a major role in writing the rules
What is the insider pressure group case study?
The National Trust
-Europe’s largest conservation charity with a membership of over 5 million
-Key aim is preservation of the nation’s most beautiful and iconic properties and countryside, and to lobby the govt on issues like climate change and preserving the green belt
-Typifies the insider group as is long established, has a formal organisational structure and disproportionately white middle class membership
-Does sometimes speak out against govt policies eg in 2011 it took a strong public stance against govt-proposed changes to land use planning in England
-Influenced by other PGs each BLM protests accelerated its research into links between properties and slave trade
What are outsider pressure groups?
-Less likely to enjoy enduring ties with the govt
-Campaigning is more militant and publicity seeking, often involving breaking the law and using high profile direct action
-environmentalist eg Plane Stupid ‘When the democratic, legislative processes have failed it takes the actions of ordinary people to change them’
-militant animal welfare groups eg Animal Liberation front break into labroratories that use animals for scientific testing
How can outsider pressure group status be subdivided?
POTENTIAL INSIDERS- while currently outsider, they seek to be insiders, but lack the experience and connections to achieve this. insider status can be achieved by peaceful high profile campaigning eg in 2009 the govt conceded settlement rights to all Gurkhas after 4 years of lobbying by the Gurkha justice campaign
OUTSIDERS BY NECESSITY- forced to operate as outsiders due to their cause or the nature of their tactics. violent actions and law breaking rule out realistic consultation with govt. some of their aims may be considered too far from the political mainstream to be taken seriously eg Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament is directly at odds with govt policy
OUTSIDERS BY CHOICE- some groups, like those campaigning for civil liberties eg Amnesty International deliberately stay outside of government to retain their independence and ability to critique policies. want to preserve their neutrality and objectivity
Is outsider status flexible?
-Some groups that begin as outsiders move closer to the political mainstream
-eg gay rights pressure group Stonewall was an outsider group in the 80s, when it was formed in 1989 by political activists and others lobbying against Section 28 of the 1998 Local Government Act, which prohibited the promotion of homosexuality in UK schools. As public attitudes have shifted, Stonewall’s aims have become mainstream
What are the advantages of outsider pressure group status?
MEDIA- high profile and sometimes illegal protests make the headlines. can raise publicity and promote awareness of a groups’ cause
DIRECT ACTION- direct action can result in fines or imprisonment. shows the commitment of supporters to a particular cause
LINKS TO GOVERNMENT- have the freedom to act and take policy stances without being constrained by close ties with govt and its institutions
DEVELOPING INSIDER STATUS- some will achieve insider status either due to a shift in public attitudes or change of govt
What are the disadvantages of outsider pressure group status?
MEDIA- making headlines doesn’t translate to growth in public support. too much disruption can lead to negative publicity and put off potential supporters
DIRECT ACTION- those who face prosecution are labelled fanatics and extremists, can do harm to the group’s image
LINKS TO GOVERNMENT- close ties and consultation enjoyed by insider groups can give significant influence over policy making. can even take the form of a ‘critical friend’
DEVELOPING INSIDER STATUS- many never achieve insider status, some are even outsiders by choice
What is the outsider pressure group case study?
Extinction Rebellion
-High profile holacratic pressure group
-Frequently makes headlines for mass demonstrations like blocking roads and bridges
-Central tactic is encouraging mass arrests and thereby completely filling up police cells
-An 11 day wave of demonstrations in April 2019 saw thousands of activists taking part, causing major disruption. Around 500,000 commuters were affected
-Environmental concerns have certainly moved up the political agenda since 2019 so could be said to have raised the profile of climate change and its identification as an emergency
-Although focused on direct action, it has achieved some elements of insider status eg being invited to give evidence before a select committee
How do pressure groups promote elitism?
-Power is inherently distributed unequally in society, this is reflected in pressure groups
-Powerful and well resourced groups often ‘have the ear’ of govt and use their insider status to influence legislation before they are publicly debated
-Groups that are already powerful often claim a monopoly of knowledge in their topic. The ordinary public are unlikely to get the same hearing from govt
-Many are undemocratic in structure and dominated by internal elites. Accusation often levelled against Greenpeace
-Many of society’s most marginalised eg homeless lack any group with influence to represent them
-Corporate interests like banks, especially those who make political donations, are too powerful to confront
How do pressure groups promote pluralism?
-Free speech and expression enable a multiplicity of views to coexist
-The advent of social media enables groups with limited financial resources to communicate their message
-In a democracy, govts are naturally keen to be in touch with voters. So, select committees take evidence from a wide range of groups and viewpoints in their inquiries
-Many pressure groups eg BLM are non hierarchal and loosely structured
-Nearly all groups in modern British society have pressure groups that represent them
-There are checks in place to limit the power of even the most entrenched and traditionally powerful interest groups. In a democracy, no one group has a monopoly on power
How do pressure groups help democracy?
-Provide popular forums for campaigning and active political participation eg 2003 Stop the War march against Iraq war attended by 1 million
-Perform key representative function as virtually every group and viewpoint imaginable is represented, even voices of the marginalised like asylum seekers. As many groups have larger memberships than political parties, so could better represent voters
-Enable representation between elections through lobbying and campaigning and ensure issues continue to be debated outside of election cycles
-Internally democratic structures eg trade union reforms of the 80s regulated secret ballots
-Contribute positively to public awareness as they promote political education and enable voters to be better informed
-Provide specialist input that enables laws to be fairer and better
How do pressure groups hinder democracy?
-Large scale participation is the exception as most members are passive ‘chequebook members’ who join for benefits not principled conviction. Participation often limited to signing an e-petition or sending a pre-formatted email to their MP
-Many have small and unrepresentative memberships which don’t represent public opinion. Those that shout the loudest may not be the megaphone of the majority
-Lack direct democratic mandate and could be said to lack political legitimacy
-Making use of a wide range of access points doesn’t mean they benefit democracy
-Many don’t have internally democratic structures, dominated instead by a few powerful individuals
-Personality clashes can lead to splits eg Extinction Rebellion split with more radical Beyond Politics in 2020
-Provided information is inevitably one sided. Groups highlight only the positives of their stance and can even fund research to back their claims. When consulted on new laws, they offer proposals that benefit their vested interests
What fundamental points must be considered when examining the relationship between pressure group methods and success?
- Success criteria varies from group to group. For some it is straightforward, with a clear and specific aim eg securing NHS availability of a new cancer drug. For others it is the issue being kept on the ‘agenda radar’ of policy makers, as is the case for many environmental groups
- No simple answer as to which tactics are more successful, there is a high degree of flexibility as context is crucial
Are insider or outsider pressure groups more likely to succeed?
Insider groups
A low profile approach of lobbying and meetings with ministers can often bring results without the need for public campaigning
How important is political and cultural atmosphere for pressure group success?
-Campaigns and aims that accord with the govt’s own political agenda are more likely to succeed. Eg the Blair govt prioritised tackling child poverty meaning groups like the Child Poverty Action Group found it much easier to exercise influence
-A hostile cultural atmosphere is also much less likely to gain traction eg pro-hunting groups were largely excluded during the 1997-2010 Labour govts as repealing the hunting ban would be too controversial
How important is broad support for pressure group success?
-Groups that can mobilise large numbers of supporters have a higher degree of success
-Other factors like celebrity endorsement or eye catching publicity stunts can help bring success
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British constitution70
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Parliament62
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PM and the cabinet80
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UK Judiciary51
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US constitution57
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