Memory
- the process of saving information for a period of time
- synonym for learning => emphasis on ability to recall at a later time.
Storage
- the process of putting new information in memory
Encoding
- modifying information that helps us store it easily.
- changing the form + adding it to existing information + simplifying the information
Retrieval
- finding or retrieving information previously stored.
Dual-store model of memory - Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968
- Sensory register
- Working (short-term) memory
- Long-term memory
Sensory register
- holds information for long enough to undergo very preliminary cognitive processing
Characteristics (Capacity, forms of storage and duration): sensory register
- Capacity: large
- Forms of storage: original form (visual, auditory etc)
- Duration: brief
Factors affecting the duration:
1. Interference
2. Decay = Unimportant information
Process from sensory register to working memory:
Attention:
- focused cognitive processing of particular aspects of the environment
- factors: Motion, size, intensity, novelty, incongruity, social cues, emotions, personal significance
- cocktail party phenomenon: ability to attend to one spoken message while ignoring others.
- nature: undefined, both automatic/conscious control, involves learning.
- capacity: figure-ground, selecting information, tasks that require more cognitive processing take more space.
- scattered attention hypothesis vs trained hypothesis: managing mental resources through selection (attention is scarce) vs training improves the capacity of attention (attention is not scarce)
- bottleneck theory of attention: multitasking is a myth + only one item can be processed at a time.
Working memory
- where cognitive processing/active thinking takes place.
- it may also hold and process information that it retrieves form the long-term memory store.
Working memory: central executive component
- subcomponent: head of the head.
- controls and monitors the flow of information
- becomes sophisticated and effective as we age.
- effortful control: self-control/self-regulation for distractions etc
Characteristics (Capacity, forms of storage and duration) of Working Memory
Capacity: limited
- 7+/- 2 chunks of information
- chunking can increase the capacity within each unit, but not the overall capacity.
Forms of storage:
- phonological loop: auditory information
- visuospatial sketchpad: visual information
- episodic buffer: different modalities and long-term memory interacts and integrate each other into an overall understanding.
Duration: short, +/-30 seconds
- decay and interference
Control processes in working memory: organization, retrieval, maintenance rehearsal
- Organization: to increase capacity (chunking)
- Retrieval: easy/automatic, depends on how much is stored in the WM.
- Maintenance rehearsal: processing of repeating information, subvocal speech, better for short items, not a sustainable way of learning (decay happens once repetition stops)
Process from working memory to long-term memory:
Connections: relating the information to prior knowledge.
Long-term memory
- complex component
- declarative knowledge = knowledge/facts
- procedural knowledge = procedures of actions
- flexible storage, long duration
- structure: schemas (cognitive construct of many elements in a single element, small/large, automatic/controlled).
Characteristics (Capacity, forms of storage and duration): long-term memory
Capacity: unlimited
Forms of storage:
- explicit (easily recalled/explained)
- implicit (behavior, cant consciously be retrieved and inspected)
- interconnectedness: relating pieces that go together
Duration: no way to show, thought to be unlimited (decay is a retrieval problem)
Challenges to the dual-store model
- sensory and working memory might be overlapping mechanisms
- working and long term may be different aspects of a single storage mechanism
- is conscious processing in working memory really necessary for storage in long-term memory?
Alternative view: levels of processing theory
Central processor:
- process information in one of the several levels of complexity
- limited capacity
- superficial information lasts longer
- thorough information kept long-term
- incidental learning: just as likely to learn well or less
- intentional learning: actively engaged in cognitive/metacognitive = learns better
Criticism:
- depth of procesing: vague
- degree of learning does not equal degree of processing
- superficial learning can lead to better recall than deep processing (small repetitions)
Alternative view: activation theory
WM and LTM are two different states of activation
- active state: WM = new information (if other information interferes, becomes inactive and goes to LTM)
- inactive state: LTM = not aware of the information (priming activates associated memories and makes them active in the WM)
Generalizations about memory and their educational implications: attention
- essential for explicit memory
- CL: limited amount of information can be processed at once
- differences in executive skills = can be taught
- teaching bout selective techniques through signals
- effective strategies to capture and hold attention:
1. Variety in topics/presentation styles
2. Frequent breaks
3. Questions
4. Minimize distractions (class/independent work)
5. Assist those in needs
6. Monitor behaviors
Cognitive load theory
- processing limited amount of information at a time.
1. Intrinsic: complexity of a task + skills of the person
2. Extraneous: problems not related to the task (min)
3. Germane: mental ability to integrate new information with existing knowledge through schemas (preferred for learning)
CL theory:
- limited capacity of WM: enforces students to organize, condense and synthesize information
- element interactivity: interrelatedness between each element learning determines how difficult it is to process the information in the WM.
- Imagination effect: visualisation/imagination facilitates learning (prompts WM, creates better schemas = improves storage)
- expertise reversal effect: learning no long advantageous + less attention + no absorption of information due to boredom
The role of motivation
- self-efficacy = learner effort + learner characteristics
- Practice variability: varied practice increases motivation + transfer
- optimal involvement:
- cognitive efficiency:
- criticism:
