Conditional reasoning
Refers to reasoning with “if”
ex.: (P) If “it is raining”, (Q) then “ Nancy gets wet”
Propositional logic
Refers to a proposition or statement that is a sentence which is either true or false
–> doesnt admit any uncertainty about the truth
Modus tollens
(Conditional reasoning)
Is a rule of logic which states that if A = (should be) B, but B is false, then A is false
Why do people often make mistakes in conditional reasoning ?
- Great influence by contextual info that is irrelevant to logical info
- Background knowledge
- Number of available counterexamples will make one less willing to accept conditional inferences
- Low WM capacity
There are 2 processing systems individuals will use to solve conditional reasoning Problems.
S1 being rapid + automatic vs S2 being slower + demanding
What are the 4 major processing strategies identified (Bonnefant et. al) ?
- Pragmatic (1)
- Semantic (1)
–> using background knowledge
- Inhibitory (2)
–> inhibiting pragmatic + semantic strategy performance
- Generative (2)
–> combining inhibitory strategy with analytic processing
Wason selection task
- Is a task where 4 cards are lying on the table
- Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other
- A rule applies
- Task is to select only those cards that would need to be turned over to decide whether or not the rule is correct
Matching bias
Refers to the tendency for participants to select cards matching the items named in the rule regardless of whether the matched items are correct
Indicative rule
Suggests that if there is a P, then there is a Q
–> concerned with the conformation of the rule
Deontic rule
Suggests that if there is a P, then you MUST do Q
–> concerned with the detection of rule violation
–> should be used on Wason selection task
Social contract theory
Is the view that people have rules maximizing their ability to achieve their goals in social situations
ex.: One will be able to travel by train (b), when one has bought a ticket (c) = social contract
–> explains why deontic rules lead to superior performance
What kind of role does “cheating” play in the social contract theory ?
Cheating means we have fulfilled our side of the bargain but failed to have received the agreed benefit
Why do a lot of people produce incorrect answers when doing the Wasons selection task ?
- Use of simple strategies
- Not understanding fully what the task involves
–> should use deontic rules
Syllogism
- Consists of 2 premises/statements, which are followed by a conclusion
- The validity of the conclusion always depends on the premises
ex. :All children are obedient, all girl guides are children, therefore all girl guides are obedient
Why do people often make errors in syllogistic reasoning ?
Due to the existence of certain biases, but most importantly belief bias
–> meanings of words + expressions in formal logic differ significantly from meanings in everyday life
Belief bias
A tendency to accept invalid conclusions if they are believable + rejection valid conclusions when they are unbelievable
Mental model theory
States that people use information of a statement/premises to construct a mental model
–> successful thinking results from the use of appropriate mental models
Principle of truth
We construct mental models that represent explicitly only what is true, and not what is false
–> thereby minimize the load on WM
What is peoples ability to construct mental models constraint by ?
By the limited capacity of WM
Limitations on the Mental model theory ?
- People find deductive reasoning difficult, therefore engage in less effortful forms of processing than assumed
- Processes involved in forming mental models are underspecified
- Ignores individual differences
Heuristic-Analytic theory of reasoning (Evans)
(Dual Systems model)
- If someone is presented with a reasoning problem heuristic processes (intuitive) construct a mental model by using background knowledge etc
–> autonomous, fast, no WM required
- Analytical processes may or may not intervene to revise or replace model
–> deliberative, slower, WM required
Human reasoning (according to the dual systems model) is based on the use of 3 principles.
Which ones are those ?
1. Singularity principle
–> a single mental model is considered
2. Relevance principle
–> most relevant mental model based on prior knowledge + context is considered
3. Satisficing principle
–> current mental model is evaluated by analytic processes
When will belief bias be stronger, considering the dual systems model ?
- When only heuristic processes are used
- Time is strictly limited so it is difficult to use analytic processes
Secularization hypothesis
Suggests that over the course of history, with more widespread access to formal education and technology a focus on natural explanations will increasingly compete with and displace supernatural explanations
–> consistent with finding that _children gradually abandon a belief in supernatural causatio_n as they grow
Natural explanations
Refer to explanations that appeal to observable + empirically verifiable phenomena of the physical world
