Learning and memory > Problem 6 > Flashcards

Problem 6 Flashcards

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1
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Refers to learning on the basis of the law effect

–> organisms “operate” on the environment in a way that causes an outcome to occur

Discriminative Stimulus S –> Response R –> Outcome O

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2
Q

Law of effect

A

States that behaviors followed by positives consequences are strengthened + more likely to be repeated

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3
Q

What is the main difference between operant + classical conditioning ?

A
  1. In classical conditioning, organisms experience an outcome (US) whether they perform the CR or not
  2. In operant conditioning the outcome (O) doesn’t occur if the response (R) isn’t performed
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4
Q

Free operant paradigm

Skinner

A

Refers to an operant conditioning paradigm in which the animal can operate the experimental apparatus “freely”

–> can respond to obtain a reinforcement when it chooses

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5
Q

Discrete trials paradigm

Thorndike

A

Refers the an operant conditioning paradigm in which the experimenter defines the beginning + end points

–> more controlled

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6
Q

Skinner box

A

Refers to a conditioning chamber in which lever press responses (R) while the light is switched on (S), are reinforced by the delivery of food (O)

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7
Q

Cumulative recorder

A

Device that records behavioral responses

–> height represents the number of responses that have been made up to the present time

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8
Q

Discriminative Stimuli (S)

A

Refer to stimuli that signal whether a particular response will lead to a particular outcome

ex.: light on –> food, therefore lever must be pressed;
light off –> no food

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9
Q

Shaping

A

Refers to training, that consists of a series of successive approximations, so that the desired response is learned

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10
Q

Response (R)

A

Refers to the sequence of movements needed to obtain a particular outcome

ex.: pressing a lever –> door opens (O)

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11
Q

Chaining

A

Organisms are gradually trained to execute complicated sequences of discrete responses

–> occurs gradually

ex.: learns A, then AB, then ABC

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12
Q

Reinforcer/

Positive outcome

A

Refers to a consequence of behavior that leads to an INCREASE of likelihood of that behavior in the future

ex.: food when hungry

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13
Q

Primary reinforcers

A

Refer to stimuli that have innate biological values to an organism

–> organisms will therefore repeat behaviors that provide access to these things

ex.: food, water, sex, sleep

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14
Q

Drive reduction theory

A

States that all learning reflects the innate, biological need to obtain primary reinforcers

–> one wants to reduce those drives

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15
Q

Why are primary reinforcers not always reinforcing ?

A
  1. A reinforcer of the same category can evoke a stronger response than another (Negative contrast)
    ex. : will work harder for food they like, than for the ones one doesn’t like
  2. Once the the reinforcer was satiating, further induction won’t be reinforcing
    ex. : drinking until not thirsty anymore –> no more water needed
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16
Q

Secondary reinforcers

A

Refer to stimuli that have no biological value but that have been paired with primary reinforcers

ex.: money –> can be exchanged for food, sex etc

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17
Q

Token economy

A

Refers to an environment in which tokens can be exchanged for privileges

  • -> function the same way as money does in the outside world
  • -> used to modify behavior

ex.: prison, school

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18
Q

Negative contrast

A

Refers to a situation in which an organism will respond less strongly to a less-preferred reinforcer that is provided in place of an expected preferred reinforcer

–> it would have responded more strongly if the less-preferred reinforcer had ben provided all along

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19
Q

Why does the identity of the reinforcer matter ?

A

Organisms learn that a certain response (R) will result in a PARTICULAR outcome (O)

–> a switch in the outcome may produce changes in responding

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20
Q

Punisher/

Negative outcome

A

Refers to a consequence of behavior that leads to DECREASE the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future

–> opposite to reinforcer

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21
Q

Are punishments as effective as reinforcements ?

A

No,

the effects of punishment are irratic + unreliable
–> can sometimes result in paradoxical increases in punished behaviour

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22
Q

Which factors determine how effective the punishment will be ?

A
  1. Punishment might produce VARIATION IN BEHAVIOR, as the organism explores other possible responses
  2. Discriminative stimuli for punishment can ENCOURAGE CHEATING
    ex. : one will resume speeding, in the absence of police cars
  3. CONCURRENT REINFORCEMENT can undermine punishment
    ex. : one will not stop talking in class, when behavior is punished by teacher but simult. reinforced by classmates
  4. Punishment is most effective if a STRONG PUNISHER is used from the beginning

–> if not, one might become insensitive later to stronger ones

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23
Q

Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors

DRA

A

Refers to a method to decrease the frequency of unwanted behaviors by instead reinforcing preferred alternate behaviors

–> works best if the rewarded behavior is compatible with the unwanted one

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24
Q

Reinforcement schedule

A

Refers to a schedule/rules determining how often reinforcement/outcomes is/are delivered in an experiment

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25
When does learning occur the fastest ?
If there is no delay between the response + reinforcement (Temporal congruity) --> then the most recent behavior will be associated as a cause for the outcome
26
Self control/ | Delayed gratification
Refers to an organisms willingness to forego a small immediate reward in favor of a larger future reward
27
Pre-commitment
Making a choice that is difficult to change later --> will improve delayed gratification
28
Negative reinforcement
Behavior is reinforced because it causes something to be subtracted from the environment ex.: headache (S) --> take aspirin (R) --> no more headache (O)
29
Positive reinforcement
Behavior is reinforced because it causes something to be added to the environment ex.: present pot (S) --> peeing (R) --> praise (O)
30
Negative punishment
Behavior is punished by subtracting (taking away) something from the environment ex.: Siblings --> aggressive behaviour --> grounding
31
Positive punishment
Behavior is punished by adding something to the environment ex.: Class --> disturbing the class --> scolding
32
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Refers to a reinforcement schedule in which every instance of the response is followed by a consequence --> each response (R) is always followed by an outcome (O)
33
Partial reinforcement schedule
Refers to a reinforcement schedule in which a response is followed by an outcome less than 100% of the time --> there are 4 different types
34
Fixed-ratio schedule (FR) | Partial reinforcement schedule
A fixed number of responses must be made before a reinforcer is delivered ex.: Press lever 5 times to obtain one food pellet (5:1)
35
Postreinforcement pause
Refers to a brief pause following a period of fast responding leading to reinforcement --> length of the pause is related to the number of responses required to obtain the next reinforcement
36
Fixed-interval schedule (FI) | Partial reinforcement schedule
The first response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced --> rate of responding gradually increases as the end of the interval nears ex.: checking time only one time at beginning of class vs checking it every 10 seconds as class approaches the end
37
Variable-ratio schedule (VR) | Partial reinforcement schedule
A certain number of responses, on average, are required before a reinforcer is delivered --> steady high rate of responding, because one never knows exactly when reinforcement is coming => eliminates/reduces the postreinforcement pause
38
Variable-interval schedule (VI) | Partial reinforcement schedule
Reinforcement is delivered to the first response after an interval that averages a particular length of time --> steady high rate of responding => eliminates post reinforcement pause
39
Concurrent reinforcement schedules
Refer to schedules in which the organism can make any of several responses, each leading to a different outcome ex.: watching the preferred program, but switching over to to different channels during commercials
40
Matching law of choice behavior
The idea that an organism, given a choice between multiple responses, will make a particular response at a rate proportional to how often that response is reinforced relative to the other choices --> describes how one will allot ones time + effort among a set of possible operant responses
41
Behavioral economics
The study of how organisms allocate their time + resources among possible options
42
What does the economic theory predict ?
Each consumer will allocate resources in a ways that maximizes their "subjective value" or relative satisfaction --> subjective because it differs from person to person
43
Bliss point
Refers to the particular allocation of resources that provides maximal subjective value to an individual
44
Premarck principle
Theory that the opportunity to perform a highly frequent behavior can reinforce a less frequent behavior --> later refined
45
Response deprivation hypothesis
States that opportunity to perform any behavior can be reinforcing if access to that behavior is restricted ex.: not allowed to watch tv if not finished homework before --> refined premarck principle
46
Dorsal striatum
Important for stimulus-response learning (S-R), that become automatic/habitual --> region of basal ganglia
47
Orbitofrontal cortex
Important for response-outcome learning (R-O), meaning, learning to predict the outcomes of particular responses - -> codes the identity of an outcome + whether the outcome is reinforcing or not - -> contains neurons that respond to punishments + rewards
48
Ventral tegmental area | VTA
Contains dopamine-producing neurons which project to the frontal cortex + other regions of the brain - -> Neurons are activated by reinforcers + punishers - -> region of the midbrain
49
Motivational value
Refers to how had we are willing to work to obtain the stimulus --> how much we WANT it
50
Does either of the "wanting" and "liking" signals suffice to evoke responding at the arrival of the reinforcer?
No, Only when both signals are present, will the reinforcer evoke responding + strengthen the S-R association --> "liking" isn't enough ex.: we may "like" cake, but may not be motivated to head into kitchen to get another slice, when we have already had 3 slices
51
Substantia nigra pars compacta | SNc
Contains dopamine-producing neurons which project to the dorsal striatum - -> neurons are activated by reinforcers + punishers - -> region of the basal ganglia
52
What does dopamine reduction lead to ?
Changes the willingness to work for a stimulus/ motivated responding --> liking rate remains the same
53
Incentive salience hypothesis
States that the role of dopamine in operant conditioning is to signal how much the animal "wants" a particular outcome
54
What does stimulation of the dopamine system lead to ?
Increased "wanting" --> can be done naturally by exposure to a stimulus that has previously been associated with reinforcement
55
Dopamine
Is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter that strengthens learning for S-R associations during operant conditioning + promotes synaptic plasticity --> signals WANTING/Anticipatory pleasure
56
Opiates
Refer to a class of drugs that mimic the effects of endogenous opioids, by activating the same receptors as them ex.: morphine, heroin
57
Endogenous opioids
Are naturally occurring neurotransmitter like substances with many of the same effects like opiates --> signals LIKING/consummatory pleasure
58
Endogenous opioids are released in response to ... ?
Primary + sometimes secondary reinforcers --> differences in the amount being released determines ones preference for one reinforcer over another
59
Insula
Important for conscious awareness of our own bodies + emotional states --> signals degree of unpleasantness/"DISLIKING"
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Dorsal posterior insula
Important for perceiving physical pain + other negative emotional states
61
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex | dACC
Implicated in the motivational value of pain by suggesting an appropriate response - -> the degree to which pain can drive changes in behavior - -> its activity level is predictive of whether participants actually change their response
62
Pathological addiction
Refers to a strong habit that is maintained despite known harmful consequences
63
Why is addiction so hard to overcome ?
Because it involves 1. Positive reinforcement - -> the "high" elicited by drug 2. Negative reinforcement - -> avoiding the withdrawal symptoms => both processes reinforce the drug taking behavior
64
What would damage to the Insula lead to ?
Disruption of drug seeking behavior --> insular helps maintaining addiction by representing the negative feelings like withdrawal + cravings
65
Behavioral addictions
Refer to addictions to behaviors, that produce reinforcement as well as cravings + withdrawal when the behavior is prevented ex.: compulsive gambling
66
Why is gambling so seductive + highly addictive ?
It is reinforced on a VR schedule --> you can never be sure when the next big payoff will come
67
How can you treat addiction ?
1. Naltrexone treatment - -> blocks opiate receptors 2. Extinction - -> if R stops eliciting O, frequency of R will decline 3. Distancing - -> avoiding triggering stimuli 4. Differential reinforcement of alternate behaviors (DRA) => most effective to combine cognitive + behavioral therapy based on conditioning
68
Where does info of the Discriminative stimulus travel to ? | Brain regions
1. Sensory motor cortex receives info from Discriminative stimulus 2. SMC projects to the Basal ganglia 3. Dorsal striatum in turn encodes info + projects to Orbitofrontal cortex
69
Internet addiction
Refers to an impulse-control disorder that does not involve intoxication --> pathological gambling most similar to addictive internet use --> internet itself is not addictive but rather specific applications, the more interactive the more it supports pathological use as it provides a unique reinforcement ex.: social media
70
Basal ganglia
Includes the a) dorsal striatum b) Nucleus accumbens --> helps linking the associations between motor + sensory cortex so that a stimulus elicits appropriate motor responses
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