Deductive reasoning
Starting from known statements, then deducing new conclusions
–> stressed in rationalism
ex.: children younger than 6 can’t speak
Hattie is 5, she therefore can’t speak
Inductive reasoning
Conclusions are drawn on the basis of convergent observations
–> stressed in empiricism
Demarcation criteria
Refer to the lines that will define science + its boarders
–> used to define the specificity of science
Philosophy of science
Refers to a branch of science dealing with questions related to the status + uniqueness of science
Vienna circle
Wiener Kreis
Was a group of scholars in vienna that were logical positivists
–> found prominence with their publication of the “manifesto”
Logical positivism
Refers to a movement that tried to reconcile the practical success of sciences with the methodological cones formulated by philosophers
–> due to major criticism only had little impact
1929 Manifesto of the Vienna Circle put forward important demarcation criterion.
Name them.
- Theres 2 types of truth
- -> empirical + logical - Empirical truths are established through EMPIRICAL VERIFICATION
- Logical truths are based on DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- Statement not belonging to one of the categories are meaningless
Empirical verification
Verificationism
States that a proposition is only meaningful if it can be verified as true or false through objective + value-free observation
Ciriticisms on empirical verification ?
- Verification is logically impossible
- -> inductive reasoning - Scientific theories are full of non observable variables
- Sometimes things aren’t observable until one knows how to search for them
- How should we define “observable” ?
What is the difference between science + non-science ?
Popper
- Science: Based on facts + constantly questions its explanations
e. g.: observations + verifications - Non-science: Based on ideas
e. g.: dogmas, prejudices
Falsificationsim
Popper
States that statements are only scientific if they can be falsified empirically
–> a theory would therefore rule out a range of outcomes
ex.: if a researches repeatedly tried to reject a theory and failed, this would be strong evidence for the correctness
=> alternative to verificationism
Hypothetico-deductive method
Refers to a method that involves a combination of inductive + deductive reasoning
- A theory is formulated in the basis of inductive reasoning
- A testable prediction/Hypotheses is formulated on the basis of deductive reasoning
- Prediction is put to the falsification test
When does a theory reach high scientific status according to Popper ?
When the degree of falsifiability is high
–> the clearer + more precise a theory, the higher the status if it tends repeated falsification tests
Conformation bias
The tendency people have to search for evidence that confirm their opinions
Should theories be thrown away as soon as they are falsified ?
No,
often times it is better to adapt an existing, good theory so that it is no longer contradicted by the available empirical evidence
BUT: modified theories should become more falsifiable
Ad hoc modifications
Refer to modifications that are not stable or made a theory less falsifiable
–> unacceptable
Why is falsification a better criterion than verification ?
Because, it is logically possible to falsify a statement based on inductive reasoning
–> the more falsifiable the better
What are the different stages of Kuhns theory of scientific progress ?
- Pre science
- -> discipline without a general theory - Normal science
- Crisis
- Scientific revolution
=> all scientific knowledge is relative + time-dependent
Stage of normal science
- Theory is formed, which includes a paradigm
- Scientists solve puzzles within the paradigm + defend it
- Modifications have to stay within paradigm
Stage of crisis
- Abnormalities have accumulated in normal science + modifications become increasingly adhoc
- Triggers crisis
- Scientists are now more open to an alternative
Scientific revolution
Occurs when an alternative to the old paradigm is found (paradigm shift)
–> DRP is replaced by the PRP, which is why scientific progress is not steady
Paradigm
Refers to a set of common views of what the discipline is about + how the problems must be approached
–> start of science
Degenerative research program
DRP
Refers to a paradigm that doesn’t allow researches to make new predictions
–> requires an increasing number of as hoc modifications tp account for the empirical findings
Progressive research programme
PRP
Refers to a paradigm that allows the researchers to make new unexpected predictions that can be testes empirically
