Problem solving - brain and cognition

Question 1

Describe analogical problems

Answer 1

Analogical problems involve using similarities between a current and past experiences to guide problem solving.

Previously used strategies are mapped and adapted to novel situations.

Question 2

Outline expertise problems

Answer 2

Expertise is specialised knowledge within a particular domain. Thus experts will be able to solve these problems more efficiently than novices as they can draw upon structured knowledge.

Question 3

Outline ambiguous problems

Answer 3

Ambiguous problems are less dependent on prior experience but instead rely on general problem solving skills, thereby requiring insight.

Question 4

Distinguish well-defined from ill-defined problems

Answer 4

Well-defined problems aren’t ambiguous, initial state, goals and methods to get there are clearly laid out.

In contrast, ill-defined problems are imprecisely defined.

Question 5

Outline reproductive and productive thinking.

Answer 5

Gestalt’s distinguish the two forms of thinking.

Reproductive thinking involves drawing upon past experiences to guide problem solving. Reliant on memory and learned knowledge.

Productive thinking requires people to think more creatively and flexible, often dependent on insight when problems are ill-defined and problems being restructured.

Question 6

Why can prior knowledge be limited

Answer 6

An overreliance on prior knowledge can prohibit creative thinking and block insight by causing individuals to be too narrow minded only focussing on familiar solutions.

Question 7

Describe knowledge lean and rich problems.

Answer 7

Knowledge rich problems require drawing upon structured knowledge from a specific domain.

Knowledge lean is less about specific knowledge but rather general problem solving skills.

Question 8

Define Impasse

Answer 8

When no progress towards a solution appears possible.

Question 9

Outline representational change theory

Answer 9

Representational change theory describes how problems which once appeared unsolvable can obtain a solution by framing them in a different way.

Constraint relaxation - requires individual to let go of assumptions about what is allowed within a problem. Rules previously considered as fixed are now thought to be flexible.

Re-encoding: reinterpreting elements of the same equation to see them in a different way.

Elaboration: Adding new information or details to the mental representation, which helps in seeing alternative solutions.

Insight often occurs when one of these changes allows a previously hidden solution to emerge.

Question 10

Describe Type A vs Type B problems in reference to the matchstick problem

Answer 10

Knoblich

Type A problems reflect everyday arithmetic experience whilst, Type B problems cause individuals to fixate for longer on numerical values because they assume operators to be fixed.

Insight occurs when this constraint is relaxed and participants realise they can manipulate the operators within the equation.

Question 11

Outline algorithms and heuristics

Answer 11

Algorithms prioritise certainty, involving a particular formula which if followed correctly, guarantee a solution. However, they can be slow and require exhaustive search.

Heuristics use mental short cuts to prioritise efficiency and practicality whilst accuracy may be overlooked.

Question 12

Describe how insight can be facilitated

Answer 12

Hints - Getting individuals to focus on less obvious aspects of a problem, and overcoming mental blocks. Small problems can encourage reinterpretation and produce solutions.

Incubation - Wallas
Short breaks, temporarily shifts attention away from the problem. During this break, unconscious thought processes can work on the problem, allowing a solution to unexpectedly emerge.

Fixed functionality occurs when we tend to think of an object only in terms of its original usage. This can hinder problem solving as it prohibits flexible thinking. This can be overcome by focussing on less obvious features of an object, allowing solutions to emerge based on these overlooked aspects.

Question 13

Describe problem space

Answer 13

Problem space refers to:

Initial problem state - starting point

Goal state - solution

All possible mental operators - actions that can be applied to facilitate progress

Intermediate stages between these two states

Question 14

Describe problem solving strategies

Answer 14

Simon and Newell

Hill Climbing - short term success, looks for immediate actions that can reduce gap between initial problem and goal state.

Means-Ends Analysis:
Identify the difference between the current state and the goal, set subgoals to reduce this difference, and select operators to achieve these subgoals.

Meta-reasoning - monitors progress, if unobserved a new strategy is adopted

Question 15

Describe a cognitive miser in relation to Simon and Newell

Answer 15

Someone who favours heuristics to guide problem solving.

They rely on heuristics, not because they cannot think deeply, but because they are reluctant to spend effort.

Simon and Newell argued heuristics are used when cognitive capacity is low. However, the cognitive miser shows people can opt for them to save effort rather than not having the processing ability.

Question 16

Describe the CRT

Answer 16

Measures an individual’s ability to override intuitive but incorrect responses with more reflective thinking. Highlights the difference between fast, intuitive thinking and slower, deliberate reasoning.