PSC141 Cognitive Development Exam 2

Question 1

Sociocultural Perspective

Answer 1

how we develop (how we learn to think) is a function of the social and cultural environment in which we are reared

Vygotsky is founder of framework - kids are different depending on the environment they grow up in

Question 2

Rogoff’s research comparing American and Maya kids

Answer 2

Barbara Rogoff
US middle-class families vs. Maya communities in Guatemala

in the US, kids are segregated from adults, such as at school/preschool
- activities and toys are tailored to what kids like

in contrast, Maya kids are integrated with adults and older kids, described by Rogoff as observing and pitching in
- as such, children are expected to be involved and help out

Question 3

Guided Participation

Answer 3

children learn through involvement with others as they engage in shared environments
- learning by being involved
- not just explicit instructions, but also everyday experiences, observation of parents, chores, and TV

Question 4

Learning by observing and pitching in

Answer 4

guided participation and Rogoff

Question 5

Collaboration differences across cultures (US & Mexican heritage kids)

Answer 5

in the US, parents organize, give lessons, and name routines

in Maya communities in Mexico and Guatemala, parents are interactive, responsive, nonverbal, and follow the child’s lead
- there are high expectations for contributing and pitching in

Rogoff - Mexican heritage kids have a different style of working together that should be valued (Mexican-American families have high expectations to collaborate and help)
- in contrast, European American kids get fewer opportunities to contribute and collaborate

Question 6

WEIRD samples in research: What is WEIRD? What are the limitations of WEIRD research?

Answer 6

wester, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic

limitations stem from the fact that much research is done on only a small sample of what the world is actually like, meaning it excludes most of the world
- experiences missing from attempts to study humans

Question 7

Understanding social groups

Answer 7

humans tend to have strong in-group affiliations
- evolutionary argument - importance of groups for human survival
- part of social cognition - understanding your group

Question 8

Gender and own-race preferences in children

Answer 8

by 2.5 years old, kids prefer their own gender as friends
10-month-olds and 2-year-olds share more similarity with own and other-race individuals, less with gender

own-race preferences emerge at 4-5-years-old

Question 9

Shutts et al. paper: rationale/motivation, method, findings, implications

Answer 9

rationale/motivation
evidence of imbalance in race preferences; white children tend to have a bigger own-race preference than minority-race children
- kids from minoritized groups tend to show either white-race preference, no preference, or weak own-race preference
- this was tested in majority white countries

method
took place in South Africa, where the largest population group is black African
- whites historically held power, repressed and abused black Africans, and in the country today, still hold higher levels of wealth and education
- separating familiarity (who kids see the most) vs. wealth/power
- black children should prefer people from the same group is the preference comes from familiarity

2 locations
- Cape Town (large multiracial city) - kids were tested with white adult faces in English and with a white female tester, tested with kid faces that differ in race (black/white) and gender, again with English and white female tester, tested with kid faces by Xhosa tester in Xhosa language
- Langa (small, predominantly black town) - kids tested with adult faces, in a Xhosa home, with Xhosa tester speaking Xhosa language, tested with kid and adult faces that differ in race (black/white) or gender

findings
in Cape Town, all races preferred white and multiracial pictures
both in Cape Town and Langa, there was a bias against foreign Black Africans
no results showed a preferences for males over females (tend to prefer own gender instead)

implications
demonstrates a limit to only studying white upper to middle-class English-speaking-American children
- context matters, there isn’t a universal “own race preference”

Question 10

Stereotype threat and education and achievement

Answer 10

anxiety about being judged based on negative stereotype about your identity; is disruptive

it produces underperformance, as while they prepare equally, since one group expects to not do as well, they end up actually not performing well

activating/inhibiting the stereotype allows you to se the causal effects on performance

Question 11

Social cognition

Answer 11

thinking about oneself, other people, and the social world

Question 12

Early social attention in infants

Answer 12

newborn infants tend to…
- prefer human faces vs. other face-like stimuli (like the paddle)
- recognize mom’s voice prenatally
- recognize mom’s face within a day of being born
- prefer human voices over other sounds

Question 13

Understanding beliefs: Theory of Mind (ToM)

Answer 13

concept of the mind and mental states, which includes intentions, desires, knowledge, beliefs, and emotions

gold-standard tests of ‘fully-fledged’ theory of mind are false-belief tasks (succeeding in these tasks requires understanding that mental states are person-specific, can be distinct from reality, and guide action)

Question 14

The Development of Mind Reading (tb)

Question 15

Measuring ToM: False belief tasks (misleading appearance task also known as unexpected contents or Smarties task, Sally-Anne task also known as displacement task, mean monkey task), how they work, what do children need to understand to succeed in false belief tasks

Answer 15

passing false-belief tasks are interpreted as theory of mind attainment

unexpected contents/Smarties task
- children shown box of Smarties and asked what they think is in the box, they naturally answer Smarties
- the box is opened to reveal pencils instead of candy
- children are asked what they originally thought was in the box before being shown the contents, and predict what another child (who is unaware of the trick) will think is in the box
- most 3-year-olds say pencils to both questions, signifying that they forgot their initial belief

Sally-Anne task
- most 3-year-old children fail
- believe that Sally will look in the box (children can’t separate her own knowledge and can’t separate reality/thoughts)
- most 5-year-old children pass
- say that Sally will look in the basket because she doesn’t know the object was moved

Mean monkey task
- mean monkey gets to choose the stickers first
- researcher asks the child which one he wants and puts away the mean monkey
- monkey comes back and asks which one the child really wants
- the 3-year-old doesn’t know that the monkey can be fooled and always tells the truth about which sticker he wants
- child 18 months older figures out that the monkey can be fooled; by pointing at the sticker that he doesn’t want as the one at likes, he can get the sticker he likes more

Question 16

Changes in Theory of Mind, Theory of Mind across ages, cultures (tb)

Question 17

Do Three-Year-Olds have a Theory of Mind

Answer 17

representational deficit - 3-year-olds lack the conceptual structures necessary to solve problems dealing with beliefs; they don’t possess a true theory of mind
- possible that they have difficulty with contradictory evidence, and cannot deal with two representations of a single object simultaneously (ex. candy in location 1 and location 2)
- possible that young children have a general lack of executive function (such as inhibition mechanisms)
- inability to regulate their own behavior - have basic conceptual skills underlying ToM mind but are overwhelmed by the demands of conventional false-belief tasks

Question 18

Theory of Mind and Autism, mind blindness

Answer 18

common claim that people with autism lack ToM; Simon Baron-Cohen refers to this as mind blindness, and that those with autism have lower empathy

autism criteria includes differences in social communication and interaction, such as social reciprocity (conversations and sharing interests), nonverbal communication (ex. eye contact), difficulty with relationships (ex. adjusting to social context)

many people with autism pass false-belief tasks - major false-belief studies with autistic people don’t replicate Baron-Cohen’s findings
- language knowledge explains a lot of variations in performance
- ToM performance doesn’t correlate with social interactions, empathy, or autistic traits in real life
- and ToM tasks don’t correlate with each other (challenges the notion that they all measure a unified construct)

Question 19

Variations in communication across autistic and non-autistic people

Answer 19

task of retelling a story
- measure rapport and whether they were able to transfer info across people
- would tell a story, passed down a line (between autistic adults, non-autistic adults, and mixed group)
- group with all autism people, neurotypical people, communication was good (not sharing less information)
- big drop-off in amount of info that gets lost for mixed group in particular

autistic people also have social cognition

Question 20

Information processing approaches (Assumptions of Information Processing Approaches (tb))

Answer 20

core assumption - information moves through a system of stores (limited resource capacity processing system)
- external world info is initially represented (sensory registers) - separate sensory store for each sense modality, these registers can hold large quantities of info but only for a few seconds
- passed to short-term store - capacity is smaller but representations are more durable - considered the contents of consciousness - limited capacity
- apply some cognitive operation to info in the short-term store, that info is transferred to LTM

Question 21

Limited capacity for information processing

Answer 21

limited capacity system - there’s a limit to the amount of info that can be processed at one time (speed, mental space)
- capacity to engage attention, memory, etc. depends on how automatic or effortful the process is

Question 22

Speed of processing (tb)

Answer 22

children require more time to execute most cognitive processes than do other children
Kail experiments - all tasks show same pattern of changes in reaction time across age
- maturationally based factors primarily responsible for age-related differences in speed and, therefore, efficiency of processing (like myelination of nerves in the associative/thinking area of the brain, which is not complete until teen years and beyond)

Question 23

Memory span (tb)

Answer 23

the number of items a person can hold in the short-term store, assessed by testing the number of (usually) unrelated items that can be called in exact order (average of 4 and 6.5-month-olds is 1 item, 2-year-olds is 2 items, 5-year-olds 4 items, 7-year-olds 5 items, 9-year-olds 6 items)
- average for adults is 7 items

Question 24

Short term store (tb)

Answer 24

the memory store that can hold a limited amount of info for a matter of seconds
location where cognitive operations are executed
info can be maintained indefinitely in short-term store through operations like researsal

Question 25

Executive function (EF)/executive control

Answer 25

process involved in regulating attention and determining how to act on new info or stored info (aka executive control)

Question 26

Working memory, inhibition, selective attention, cognitive flexibility, self-regulation & delay of gratification

Answer 26

components of EF working memory - information held in short-term storage, what you can think about at once inhibition of responses and resistance to interference cognitive flexibility - ability to shift different tasks or sets of rules selective attention to what's relevant self-regulation - process of adopting standards of acceptable behavior, including aspirational standards as well as social and moral standards delay of gratification in order to succeed at something later on

Question 27

Dimensional card sort task, attentional inertia

Answer 27

kids first given to sort either by shape or by color (do one correctly first and then the other) - no conflict in this because only involves one dimension (don't have to choose one of the two dimensions) next given task to sort by red in one place, and sort by shape in another place - kid's reaction to this task is attentional inertia (when children aren't able to switch their attention to another context) brain region that supports performance in card sort task - prefrontal cortex (which has stronger connections with other regions of the brain, not just by itself) - one of the last things to reach maturity (along with executive function) 3 y/o tend to have harder time than 4 and 5 year olds

Question 28

Significance of EF abilities

Answer 28

need to be able to enforce structure on daily life to organize and plan not to be impulsive executive function helps in succeeding in academic setting (regulate ourselves learning the information and not just being capable of learning info) hold lots of info in head at once and manipulate it

Question 29

Genetic influence on executive function

Answer 29

highly heritable fraternal twins (50% shared DNA) - shared home environment identical twins (100% shared DNA) - shared home environment and shared genes estimate how much variance in an outcome (EF) can be attributed to - genes - almost 100% for some shared variance in EF tasks, high for switching (but some tasks are more genetic than others - ability to switch - flexibility is highly genetic; ability to inhibit impulses more attributable to non-shared environment) - usually depends on how heritable a skill is and how environment can influence that skill - shared environment - non-shared environment (high for inhibition)

Question 30

Inhibition and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (tb)

Answer 30

ADHD - children and adults who have this display hyperactivity, impulsiveness, and great difficulty sustaining attention - 5-11% in children in US (more common in boys, 1/3-1/2 of all cases persist into adulthood) - children with ADHD more likely to experience school problems (poor academic performance, grade retention, suspensions, expulsions) Barkley - principle cause of ADHD is deficits in behavioral inhibition (influences WM, self-regulation of emotion, internalization of speech, and reconstitution (creation of novel, complex goal-directed behaviors)

Question 31

Developmental Differences (tb)

Answer 31

day/night task children also have hard time inhibiting speech inhibition and resistance to interference related to selective attention (ability to focus only on chosen stimuli and not be distracted by other noise in the environment - even 4-5-year-olds easily distracted)

Question 32

Executive function and brain development (tb)

Answer 32

EF consists of components that are related to one another and are associated with age related changes in different areas of the PFC (one of last areas of brain to reach full maturity)

Question 33

Prefrontal cortex and inhibition

Answer 33

prefrontal cortex more active on inhibition tasks in adolescents than in either children or adults

Question 34

Measures of EF (e.g., Stroop, day/night, digit span, head toes knees shoulders, tower of Hanoi)

Answer 34

(backwards) digit span - working memory and inhibition head toes knees shoulders - inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility tower of Hanoi - cognitive flexibility, working memory planning Stroop - inhibition day/night - children must say day each time they see picture of moon and night each time they see picture of sun (inhibition) delay of gratification - self-regulation, delay of gratification, inhibitory control

Question 35

Lillard & Peterson article: rationale/motivation, method, findings, implications

Answer 35

motivation - TV exposure correlates with EF - with higher levels of TV, what happens to EF? - does this correlation mean that high TV exposure causes low EF skills? - short-term causal effects of TV on EF hypothesis - fast-paced cartoons may be more taxing on encoding than slow cartoons (because uses up limited attentional resources, leading to lower EF performance) method - tested 4-year-olds that were white and middle- to upper-middle-class - wanted to compare Caillou (slow-paced) and SpongeBob (fast-paced), third condition of drawing (control condition) findings - SpongeBob watchers had lower EF than Caillou or drawing condition - drawing condition wasn't consistently different from the educational show (Caillou) limitations - age (can't be extended to all ages), pace (multiple components of SpongeBob attract attention like vivid colors, also has level of fantasticalness/imaginative), temporary (don't know how temporary these effects are), exposure time (don't know if this is the maximum effect it will have after 9 minutes) implications -

Question 36

Media use and effects of experience on EF: short form video, multitasking, smartphones, television, culture and social influences, trust, resources

Answer 36

increased short-form video use is associated with poorer attention, inhibitory control, and mental health (Nguyen) media multitasking is correlated with poor EF (Ophir) - not as good as doing two things as you are at doing one - limited capacity system (there's a limit to the amount of info that can be processed at one time) - Skowronek et al. - even mere presence of smartphone consumes cognitive resources, without willingly shifting attention or actively using the phone unclear whether phone use causes generally impaired executive functions (Wilmer) cultural and social influences on EF - delaying gratification only makes sense when you trust that the good think you're waiting for will arrive (kids from lower income families - there might not be more marshmallows later) - delay of gratification may also be influenced by group affiliation - even minimal things like t-shirt color can bring children to affiliate with a group - over time, those affiliations may support these skills in practiced and socially valued contexts EF tasks only make sense in cultural context - traditional EF tasks weren't appropriate for evaluating Mayan children's EF (Gaskins) trust - low-trust situations can reduce performance on EF tasks, opposite for high-trust situations

Question 37

Alison Gopnik TED talk, view on childhood, blicket detecting, attentional skills

Answer 37

babies have wide-ranging lantern consciousness, adults have highly focused spotlight of consciousness/attention - babies and young children bad at narrowing down to one take but good at taking in lots of info from lots of sources at once - by saying that they are bad at paying attention, they’re actually bad at not paying attention (bad at getting rid of things and just looking at the thing that’s important) 18-month-olds gave researcher what they want, even if it was broccoli (15m didn't do this, just gave the goldfish) blicket detecting - better than finding out unlikely hypotheses than adults using statistics to find out about the world trying new combinations to make the blicket light up - testing hypotheses when playing, children typically do a series of experiments when you ask them to explain something

Question 38

Information processing and interaction of perception, attention, and memory

Answer 38

the greater working memory, the more info you can hold in your mind LTM involved in encoding WM, selective attention, inhibition involved in retrieval selective attention - focus attention on what's relevant in the moment --> hold details of words, objects, events in WM --> encode useful info to long-term

Question 39

Memory Development in Infancy (tb)

Answer 39

preference for novelty paradigms conjugate-reinforcement procedure deferred imitation (imitating a model after a significant delay) dentate gyrus (part of hippocampus) plays important role in episodic memory, continues to develop after birth and into adulthood

Question 40

Infantile amnesia, definition, first memories & possible explanations

Answer 40

inability of adults to remember specific events from early childhood average age of earliest memory in adults is 3.5 years early memories are few and lack detail possible explanations - children don't understand events well enough to encode them properly - shifts in how info is encoded and retrieved from infancy to child/adulthood - hippocampal development - important for memory of events (brain structure isn't the same - bigger and more connections, memories also overwritten) infantile amnesia doesn't mean that infants don't form memories

Question 41

Possible explanations for infantile amnesia; hippocampus and infantile amnesia

Answer 41

possible explanations - children don't understand events well enough to encode them properly - shifts in how info is encoded and retrieved from infancy to child/adulthood - hippocampal development - important for memory of events (bigger and more connections like new neurons leads to better formation and retrieval of memories, rapid neurogenesis in infants means fast memory formation, but with few neurons and connections, means that memories are overwritten and brain structure from before isn't the same ) infantile amnesia doesn't mean that infants don't form memories

Question 42

Measuring memory in infants: Conjugate reinforcement task to measure memory (mobile/train task; “Kicking up their heels”, duration of memories across ages, how study and test conditions affect memory)

Answer 42

Rovee-Collier - mobile task (conjugate reinforcement task to measure memory) - ribbon tied to baby's ankle to measure how frequent they kick - learning phase - mobile above baby's bed, notice that kicking moves the mobile and they kick more - retention test - infant returns to crib under mobile but not tied to ribbon - if remember, will still kick at high rate train task - mobile doesn't stay interesting - 6-18-month-olds, new stimuli with same rationale as mobile task but more exciting (pressing levers and trains, when now not connected to the train, rate at which they press the lever is being measured) infants remember over long periods of time as age increases (includes more complex behaviors)

Question 43

Why does memory improve: brain changes, parental support, world knowledge, memory strategies, metacognition and metamemory

Answer 43

explanation 1 - neurodevelopmental changes - changes in hippocampus and connections from hippocampus to other brain regions, PFC to other brain regions - connections across other brain regions explanation 2 - experience - parents support learning how to remember - improve memory encoding and retention as structure become larger and develop more connections, get more effective at creating, consolidating, and retrieving memories - talking about memories influences how memories are encoded and remembered - asking questions, etc. - scaffolding helps them understand what info to encode and store about memories - informative - these are the things to remember about the events (not too specific) explanation 3 - experience - accumulating world knowledge - prior knowledge about events, objects, people creates a strong base for encoding, storing, and retrieving new related information - knowing more about the world helps memory (chess example - children can have better memories than adults for subjects they are expert at) - scripts and background knowledge are usually helpful for memory but can produce errors based on typical events explanation 4 - use of memory strategies - rehearsing (repeating to ourselves), organizing info (focusing on one aspect, clustering ideas), focusing attention (particularly hard for kids) - retrieval practice - testing memory strengthens memory, more effective than restudying - younger children don't know strategies, don't know how to use strategies effectively, or don't know how they are useful explanation 5 - metacognition and metamemory

Question 44

Parenting and memory, support for memory (“Teaching” children to remember)

Answer 44

explanation 2 - experience - parents support learning how to remember - improve memory encoding and retention as structure become larger and develop more connections, get more effective at creating, consolidating, and retrieving memories - talking about memories influences how memories are encoded and remembered - asking questions, etc. - scaffolding helps them understand what info to encode and store about memories - informative - these are the things to remember about the events (not too specific)

Question 45

Development of Memory Strategies (tb)

Question 46

Rehearsal, organization, knowledge base, metacognition, metamemory (tb)

Answer 46

explanation 4 - use of memory strategies - rehearsing (repeating to ourselves), organizing info (focusing on one aspect, clustering ideas), focusing attention (particularly hard for kids) - retrieval practice - testing memory strengthens memory, more effective than restudying - younger children don't know strategies, don't know how to use strategies effectively, or don't know how they are useful knowledge base - general background knowledge a person possesses, which influences most cognitive task performance (elaborative knowledge base for sets of items allows the effective use of mnemonics) metacognition - knowledge of own cognitive abilities metamemory - knowledge of one's own memory

Question 47

DeLoache’s research on use of scale models, shrinking room task; developmental changes in scale model understanding; dual representation hypothesis (Also explained in Chapter 5: 163-167)

Answer 47

scale model - 2.5 y/o children failed to recognize that the scale model was a symbolic representation of the large room (while 3 y/o performed comparably on both tasks) have good memory for where toy was hidden but performed poorly when trying to find the toy in real room shrinking room task - toy/object shrinks in size after going into the shrinking machine - kids aren't thinking of two separate toys - see it as one toy that shrank - makes it easier to find the toy because removes need for dual representation (difficulty in thinking about an entity in two different ways at the same time) - younger children lack this dual representation - ability to view a symbol as an independent entity and as a representation of what it symbolizes - seeing model as its own fun thing prevents seeing what it symbolizes, detecting relation between symbol and symbolized not a memory problem, just have trouble figuring out what a symbol represents

Question 48

Content knowledge and memory: Child chess expert experiment

Answer 48

chess example - children can have better memories than adults for subjects they are expert at

Question 49

Metacognitive strategies, source monitoring

Answer 49

metacognitive strategies - source monitoring - ability to track origins of info in time and space (knowing where you experienced or learned something, improvements with age but still a challenge) hard to know where memories came from

Question 50

Mousetrap study example (effects of repeated questions, imagining, etc.)

Answer 50

example of errors in source monitoring asked children if they got hand caught in mousetrap and they said know brought back repeatedly and asking the same questions - sometimes included more leading questions about how the events unfolded - eventually children reported that they recall getting caught in a mousetrap harder for younger children to differentiate between imagined experiences and real ones - memory isn't formed on basis of physical situation, but is being reactivated based on previous experiences (repetition) not a phenomenon specific to children

Question 51

Children as eyewitnesses (tb)

Answer 51

Lindberg's scheme 1st category - memory processes, includes encoding (child's representation of an even and how children respond to info they receive before the event), storage (info provided to participants after witnessing an event), and retrieval (manipulations at the time of testing) 2nd category - focus of study (type of info that is being assessed) - legally central (or focal) info or peripheral (incidental) info 3rd category - participant factors (personality characteristics, stress at time of event, past experiences, general knowledge of things they witness)

Question 52

Reliability of children’s memories

Answer 52

in some cases, what looks like a memory error can be a different type of info processing error

Question 53

Approaches to testing memory

Answer 53

testing reliability of children's memories - natural events - medical procedures, getting shots - ask about real traumatic events (research issues involved) - experimental events - present a false event as true (like mousetrap study) - experimental events - real experience - researcher asks suggestive/misleading questions, introduces false info and stereotypes, then repeats questions

Question 54

Children’s memories for real events (study of children in maltreatment investigations), omission vs commission errors)

Answer 54

Goodman et al. studied 3-16-year-olds in maltreatment investigations physical medical exam, blood draw; neutral and unpleasant events - memory tested on day 5 - what happened when being interviewed and the process of the medical exam (not testing memory of abuse) age effects - overall older made fewer errors when describing the processes most errors were omission (leaving something out) rather than commission (including incorrect info)

Question 55

Forensic interviews, how forensic interviews might affect memory accuracy and reporting

Answer 55

structured conversation by investigators or social workers, to get info about experience or witnessing events (criminal investigations and for child's safety) - investigators often do what lawyers and psychologists advise against - manipulating to steer child to the answer they want minors more likely to make false confessions (more susceptible than adults to coercion during interviews)

Question 56

Memory decline, causes and prevention (video)

Answer 56

memory declines as we age, even in absence of diseases like dementia brain changes cause memory decline with age - general shrinking - death of neurons and synapses, loss of dendrites - loss of myelin (insulin - affects processing speed) - hippocampus shrinks (episodic memory) - new info not entering LTM lifestyle factors that can reduce cognitive decline (help improve cognition) - balanced diet (MIND diet - grains, leafy greens, and berries) - consistent exercise (regular physical exercise) - social activity (mandatory social engagement)

Question 57

Phonemes, graphemes, morphemes

Answer 57

phonemes - basic sounds of a language graphemes - smallest unit of a written system morphemes - smallest meaningful part of a word

Question 58

Timeline of reading development

Answer 58

preschool-1st grade - prereading, linguistic awareness (emergent literacy, will engage in behaviors that mimic reading (prereading), begin to recognize letters (especially in common words like their name), "read" common words, and show linguistic awareness (phonemes, syllables)) 1st-2nd grade - phonological decoding (letters --> sounds and blend words), taking individual sounds and putting them all together, word recognition 2nd-3rd grade - identify individual words quickly and automatically 4th-8th grade - reading to learn rather than learning to read high school - read complex and varied material, draw inferences based on readings

Question 59

Emergent literacy (tb)

Answer 59

pointing at words in books talking while looking at books imitation writing

Question 60

Prereading skills

Answer 60

preschool-1st grade prereading skills - engage in behaviors that mimic reading

Question 61

Early predictors of reading skills

Answer 61

cognitive skills/behaviors (prereading behaviors, phonological/phonemic awareness, grapheme-phoneme correspondence, vocab size) environmental factors (parents' interest in reading, parent-child books reading, books in home) read to kids to encourage love of reading (even kids who can read independently and even infant - evidence as young as 8 months) - cascading effects of early interest in reading

Question 62

Phonemic awareness (aka phonological awareness), activities for phonemic awareness

Answer 62

awareness that words consist of separate sounds breaking down words to help children understand activities include - replacing sounds at the beginning, ends of words, pronouncing words with missing sound phonemic awareness at 4-5 years old predicts later reading achievement next skill - grapheme phoneme correspondence

Question 63

Grapheme-phoneme correspondence

Answer 63

ability to match sounds to letters

Question 64

Identifying words: phonological decoding, visually based retrieval

Answer 64

two broad categories of "from phonics to retrieval" phonological decoding - sounding out - translate visual forms to sounds, sounds linked to meanings in stored vocab knowledge visually based retrieval - sight words - use the visual form to directly and automatically retrieve meaning from memory moving from decoding to retrieval is important because decoding is effortful. if you have difficulty identifying words, it won't be fun to read (reading enjoyment correlated with reading skills, overall scholastic achievement)

Question 65

Reading instruction & reading wars: whole word approach vs. three-cueing vs. phonics

Answer 65

whole-word approach - skilled readers don't sound out to identify words, so kids shouldn't; use pictures and context, reading for meaning is more enjoyable three-cueing - reading strategy using context, pictures, sentence structure and letters to identify words phonics - use sounds, letters, and words kids already know (link together previous knowledge for support, link to stored vocab knowledge in order to decode words; quick visual retrieval comes with practice) research largely supports phonics - has most scientific evidence supporting its effectiveness it doesn't exclude sight words; use of context included phonemic decoding is a flexible skill that supports learning and builds to visually-based retrieval

Question 66

Development of higher level reading requirements (automatization, working memory, content knowledge, meta-cognition)

Answer 66

in high school, read complex and varied material, draw inferences requirements - automatization of word identification and improvements in WM - process more efficient - can integrate better across sentences, paragraphs, with real world knowledge (automatic retrieval?) increased content knowledge - know what's plausible, help infer motivations of characters, likely outcomes of events meta-cognitive knowledge - faster and more accurate at evaluating what was understood/remembered/integrated

Question 67

Scarborough’s Reading Rope

Answer 67

language comprehension (increasingly automatic) - background knowledge, vocab, language structure, verbal reasoning, literacy knowledge word recognition (increasingly strategic) - phonological awareness, decoding, sight recognition

Question 68

Developmental dyslexia

Answer 68

most common form of dyslexia (affects 7-10% of US children) - specific reading impairment - reading performance below what intellectual ability would predict - issues with word reading, which influences comprehension - difficulty sounding out/decoding, phonemic awareness - still seeing development but just starting at a lower level

Question 69

Instruction for dyslexia, structured literacy

Answer 69

explicit and systematic instruction in listening, speaking, reading, and writing early identification essential for remediation (cues include trouble with phonemic awareness, family history) gap becomes much larger when they get in 1st or 2nd grade

Question 70

Brain basis for reading

Answer 70

brain connectivity in infants "language network" predicts phonological and reading skills later in life (Tang et al.) put infants into MRI scanner and get pictures of brain, can see what parts of brain are communicating with each other - strength of this network predicts phonological decoding and reading skills later in life

Question 71

Language structure and reading, deep and shallow orthography (spelling), alphabetic vs. logographic languages

Answer 71

English has deep orthography (inconsistent grapheme-phoneme correspondence) - alphabetic but spelling-sound relationships are complex - inconsistencies between what we write and hear Finnish has shallow orthography so children performed a lot better (Seymour et al.) - had kids read words that were familiar, and non-words (pseudowords) - English most difficult alphabetic bias in reading research - ex. universal language in brain, phonological processing is key - but many languages like Chinese are logographic (no alphabet, characters) same bilateral cortical network activated in both alphabetic (French) and logographic (Chinese) languages - additional regions activated in reading Chinese, potentially because motor memory areas are more active in languages with strong handwriting strokes

Question 72

Language structure and dyslexia

Answer 72

higher rates of dyslexia in children learning to read English compared to shallow orthography languages logographic languages rely more heavily on morphemes than phonemes - for children learning to read Chinese, instead of phonological awareness, a primary early predictor of dyslexia is morphological awareness (McBride Chang et al.)

Question 73

Reading links to components of cognition: language, memory, executive functions, etc.

Question 74

Number sense, significance of number sense, activities for number sense

Answer 74

includes understanding of how numbers relate and compare, estimating (general sense of how many), how operations affect numbers (adding results in larger number, etc.), how numbers decompose (how you can break a number down into smaller units), processing number flexibly (aren't stuck thinking of numbers in a static way) number sense activities with coins - flipping coins in different configurations (different combinations of heads and tails but still 10 coins) - write as numerical symbols or as equations number sense predicts later math performance (1st grade number sense predicts their 7th grade math (Geary) - number line 4 and 1 is the same numerical difference as 19 and 16)

Question 75

Importance of understanding concepts in math, classroom practice with strategies & concepts

Answer 75

math drills - so you don't always have to work out how to add or subtract numbers - be able to automatically retrieve from memory, the answers to these questions (beneficial in making retrieving these math facts automatic)

Question 76

Math disabilities (dyscalculia)

Answer 76

math learning disability affects 6% of children early difficulty with learning number sense difficulty calculating arithmetic problems and memorizing and retrieving math facts lasting problems - hard to build up without strong basic arithmetic (multi-digits, division, algebra) tend to co-occur with dyslexia but not necessarily

Question 77

Math experience in different contexts (child street market vendors)

Answer 77

math in everyday life - 9-15-year-olds running family stands researchers posed as shoppers - tests without paper, pencil, calculators (informal tests) follow up at home - formal test with same numbers, with paper and pencil - word problems (story problems) - they got 74% correct - arithmetic problems - 36% correct kids in American school system usually get the arithmetic problems more correct than the story ones children who are used to selling things - this is the way they have practiced thinking about math - can generalize this skill to new scenarios in story problems rather than formulas because they aren't as used to them

Question 78

Cultural differences in mathematics; Arithmetic in unschooled children (tb)

Answer 78

differences in mathematical attainment also occur between different information-age cultures (US college students vs. those in East Asia) access to formal schooling differences - many children in developing countries don't receive formal instruction in basic mathematics but still develop some semblance of mathematical proficiency develop and apply a flexible arithmetic system and apply it appropriately with their work context (like the street market vendors)