Psy

Question 1

Define sensation.

Answer 1

The process of detecting physical energy from the environment and encoding it as neural signals.

Sensation is the first step in the process of perception.

Question 2

Define perception.

Answer 2

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Perception involves making sense of the sensory input received.

Question 3

What is the absolute threshold?

Answer 3

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus.

It represents the lowest level of stimulus that can be detected.

Question 4

What is the difference threshold?

Answer 4

Just noticeable difference (JND) required to detect a change in stimulus.

It refers to the smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time.

Question 5

Define sensory adaptation.

Answer 5

Diminished sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged exposure.

This process allows individuals to focus on changes in their environment.

Question 6

List examples of senses.

Answer 6

• Vision
• Hearing
• Touch
• Smell
• Taste

These are the primary senses through which we perceive the world.

Question 7

What are the Gestalt principles of perception?

Answer 7

• Proximity
• Similarity
• Continuity
• Closure

These principles describe how we organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes.

Question 8

Define classical conditioning.

Answer 8

Learning to associate two stimuli; involves unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).

This type of learning was famously demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiments with dogs.

Question 9

Define operant conditioning.

Answer 9

Learning through consequences; involves reinforcement (positive/negative) and punishment (positive/negative).

This concept was developed by B.F. Skinner.

Question 10

What is observational learning?

Answer 10

Learning by watching others (modeling).

This type of learning emphasizes the role of social influence.

Question 11

List key terms related to learning.

Answer 11

• Reinforcement schedules
• Extinction
• Generalization
• Discrimination

These terms are essential for understanding the mechanisms of learning.

Question 12

Define cognition.

Answer 12

Mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge (thinking, problem-solving, decision-making).

Cognition encompasses a wide range of mental processes.

Question 13

Define intelligence.

Answer 13

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Intelligence is often measured through various tests.

Question 14

What are the theories of intelligence?

Answer 14

• Multiple intelligences (Gardner)
• Emotional intelligence
• IQ tests

These theories provide different perspectives on understanding intelligence.

Question 15

List problem-solving strategies.

Answer 15

• Algorithms
• Heuristics
• Insight

These strategies vary in their approach to finding solutions.

Question 16

What are common biases and errors in cognition?

Answer 16

• Confirmation bias
• Availability heuristic

These biases can affect decision-making and judgment.

Question 17

What are the three processes of memory?

Answer 17

• Encoding (input)
• Storage (retention)
• Retrieval (output)

These processes are essential for understanding how memory works.

Question 18

What are the stages of memory storage?

Answer 18

• Sensory memory (brief)
• Short-term memory (limited capacity/duration)
• Long-term memory (unlimited capacity)

Each stage plays a crucial role in how we process information.

Question 19

Differentiate between explicit memory and implicit memory.

Answer 19

• Explicit Memory: Semantic (facts) and Episodic (events)
• Implicit Memory: Procedural (skills), priming, classical conditioning effects

These types of memory serve different functions in our cognition.

Question 20

Define working memory.

Answer 20

Active processing of information in short-term memory; controlled by a central executive.

Working memory is crucial for tasks that require manipulation of information.

Question 21

What brain area is involved in encoding new memories?

Answer 21

Hippocampus

This structure is essential for forming new explicit memories.

Question 22

What brain area is involved in procedural memory?

Answer 22

Cerebellum

The cerebellum plays a key role in motor control and learning skills.

Question 23

What brain area is involved in emotional memories?

Answer 23

Amygdala

The amygdala is crucial for processing emotions and emotional memories.

Question 24

List memory testing methods.

Answer 24

• Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning

These methods assess different aspects of memory performance.

Question 25

What is **long-term potentiation (LTP)**?

Answer 25

A process that supports memory consolidation. ## Footnote LTP is a long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons.

Question 26

Differentiate between **proactive interference** and **retroactive interference**.

Answer 26

* Proactive interference: Old information interferes with new information * Retroactive interference: New information interferes with old information ## Footnote These types of interference can affect memory retrieval.

Question 27

What factors contribute to **false memories**?

Answer 27

* Misinformation * Suggestibility * Source confusion ## Footnote Understanding these factors is important for evaluating eyewitness testimony.

Question 28

Critically evaluate **Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences**.

Answer 28

Multiple intelligences include linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist. ## Footnote This theory suggests that intelligence is not a single entity but a combination of various abilities.

Question 29

Explain the concept of **fluid versus crystallized intelligence**.

Answer 29

* Fluid intelligence: Ability to solve new problems * Crystallized intelligence: Knowledge gained from experience ## Footnote These types of intelligence reflect different cognitive capabilities.

Question 30

Describe the **biological bases of intelligence**.

Answer 30

* Neural plasticity * Modular brain functions ## Footnote These aspects highlight the relationship between brain structure and cognitive abilities.

Question 31

What are the methodologies used in **cognitive psychology research**?

Answer 31

* Rationalism (logic) * Empiricism (observation) ## Footnote These methodologies provide complementary approaches to studying cognition.

Question 32

Discuss the **Flynn Effect**.

Answer 32

The observed rise in IQ scores over generations. ## Footnote This phenomenon has implications for understanding intelligence measurement.

Question 33

Explain the importance of **metacognition** in problem solving.

Answer 33

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. ## Footnote Metacognition plays a crucial role in effective problem solving and decision-making.

Question 34

Outline the principles of **classical conditioning**.

Answer 34

* Unconditioned stimulus (US) * Unconditioned response (UR) * Conditioned stimulus (CS) * Conditioned response (CR) ## Footnote These principles were established through foundational experiments in psychology.

Question 35

Discuss the impact of **reinforcement schedules**.

Answer 35

* Fixed ratio * Variable ratio * Fixed interval * Variable interval ## Footnote These schedules influence the persistence and extinction of behaviors.

Question 36

Explain **cognitive load theory**.

Answer 36

The theory that describes how the amount of information in working memory affects learning. ## Footnote It emphasizes the importance of managing cognitive load in educational contexts.

Question 37

Differentiate between **explicit and implicit learning**.

Answer 37

* Explicit learning: Intentional and conscious * Implicit learning: Unintentional and unconscious ## Footnote These types of learning occur in different contexts and ways.

Question 38

What role does **neuroplasticity** play in learning?

Answer 38

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections. ## Footnote Neuroplasticity is essential for adapting to new learning experiences.

Question 39

Analyze **social and cultural influences** on learning processes.

Answer 39

Focus on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. ## Footnote This theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning.

Question 40

Differentiate between **sensation and perception**.

Answer 40

Sensation is the detection of stimuli; perception is the interpretation of sensory input. ## Footnote These processes work together to help us understand our environment.

Question 41

What are the characteristics of **iconic and echoic memory**?

Answer 41

* Iconic memory: Visual, <1 sec * Echoic memory: Auditory, 1-4 sec ## Footnote These types of sensory memory are crucial for processing information.

Question 42

Describe the **Gestalt principles of perception**.

Answer 42

* Proximity * Similarity * Continuity * Closure ## Footnote These principles help explain how we perceive patterns and organize sensory information.

Question 43

Explain **bottom-up versus top-down processing**.

Answer 43

* Bottom-up processing: Data-driven, starts with sensory input * Top-down processing: Concept-driven, uses prior knowledge ## Footnote Both processes are essential for understanding perception.

Question 44

Discuss **sensory adaptation**.

Answer 44

The process by which sensitivity to a stimulus diminishes over time with constant exposure. ## Footnote Sensory adaptation allows us to focus on changes in our environment.

Question 45

Analyze how **perception** can be influenced by prior knowledge.

Answer 45

Context and expectations (perceptual set) can shape how we interpret sensory information. ## Footnote This highlights the subjective nature of perception.