Psych Main - Development

Question 1

Prenatal Development

Answer 1

Zygote –> Germinal Stage –> Embryo –> Fetus

Question 2

Examples of Rapid Neurogenesis interacting with Pre-natal Environment

Answer 2

1. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

2. Auditory Preferences (DeCaspar & Fife, 1980)

Question 3

Mennella et al. 2001

Answer 3

Prenatal and Postnatal Flavour Learning

• Asked pregnant women to drink carrot juice 4 days a week during last 3 weeks of pregnancy.
• At 5-6 months after birth, when infants began eating solid Food, they reacted more positively to cereal prepared with carrot juice
  as opposed to water (they ate more and made less negative faces when eating it

Question 4

Xu and Spelke (2000)

Answer 4

Dots study. Used infant gaze Habituation (boredom) vs. Dishabituation (excitement) when showed more numerous dots. Only if the difference was significant though e.g. 8–>14 but not 8–>10. Also shows that children have analogue magnitude from a very young age.

Question 5

Woodward (1998)

Answer 5

Violation of Expectations study. Hand grabs either a teddy or ball. Infants stared longer when the hand grabbed a new object then when it switched sides.

Question 6

Pascalis et al. (2002)

Answer 6

Showed that children have a preference for looking at human faces vs. other stimuli. This happens less so >3 months old and are better at differentiating monkey faces compared to older children

Question 7

Rich vs. Impoverished Interpretations of data

Answer 7

Rich = e.g. child's mind is very adult like and has higher understanding etc.
Impoverished = e.g. children's brains are simple  and there is always a lower-thinking explanation to why they've displayed a particular behaviour

Question 8

Jean Piaget

Answer 8

• Genetic Epistemology (Nature (a little) + Nurture)
• Sensory-motor –> Quasi-scientific/Pre-Operational –> Concrete Operational –> Formal Operational
• Stage changes (looking at errors)
• Equilibration (Assimilation fail –> Disequilibrium –> Accommodation –> Equilibrium)
• Object permanence, A-not-B error (hiding objects studies)
• Egocentricity

Question 9

Criticism of Piaget

Answer 9

• Vague in some aspects

- Competence vs. Performance?

Question 10

Baillargeon, Spelke & Wasserman (1985)

Answer 10

Habituation to a draw-bridge. A box is placed behind + 2 events: 1. bridge hits the box and stops, 2. bridge continues to go all the way. More surprised by impossible event. Children might have Object permanence?

Question 11

McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974)

Answer 11

Teddy shuffled coins. Children did better in deciding whether the rows are identical compared with original studies. Therefore demands of the task/experiment layout affect results and children are actually smarter?

Question 12

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 12

• Social contribution to development
• Importance of language and cultural tools
• Zone of proximal development (difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help.)
• Implicit vs. Explicit Scaffolding (e.g. Motherese vs. Tutor)

Question 13

Miller and Stigler (1987)

Answer 13

Numerical development. Chinese vs. American. 4-5-6 year olds.

Question 14

Bandura (1961, 1977)

Answer 14

Bobo Dolls. Observational learning. Vicarious Punishment & Selective imitation.

Question 15

Koenig et al. (2004)

Answer 15

3-4 year olds evaluate models for trustworthiness. More likely to copy a model they trust. Selective Imitation.

Question 16

Meltzoff & Moore (1977)

Answer 16

Babies at hospitals. Imitation of facial expressions.

Question 17

Meltzoff (1988)

Answer 17

14-month olds will imitate a complex action after a 1 week delay. Forehead pressing against a box to switch on light.

Question 18

Gergely et al. (2002)

Answer 18

Hands free vs, Hands occupied turning the light box. Imitation more powerful in the hands free (as it shows specifically not to use the hands)

Question 19

Overimitation (Lyons et al. 2011)

Answer 19

Children tend to imitate even the actions that aren’t necessary for a certain objective. But only if they think they do it intentionally. .

Question 20

Harlow and Harlow

Answer 20

Monkeys in isolation. Importance of a care giver. Cloth vs. Feeding mother.

Question 21

Bowlby

Answer 21

• Infants act to gain security from their caregiver (Crying, Smiling etc.)
• Caregiver supports explorations + Separation anxiety.
• Internal Working Model

Question 22

Ainsworth

Answer 22

• Strange Situation

- Secure, Avoidant, Ambivalent, Disorganised

Question 23

Johnson et al. (2010)

Answer 23

Secure babies more surprised by the unresponsive mum. Insecure babies more surprised by the responsive mum. Evidence for Internal Working Model.

Question 24

Information Processing Approach

Answer 24

1. Computational
2. Algorithmic
3. Implementational

Aspects:
Memory, Control. Strategy

(Marr, 1980??)

Question 25

How does Information Processing changes during development

Answer 25

1. Adding new ways of representing inf. | 2. Adding new ways of processing inf.

Question 26

Diamond (1985)

Answer 26

Changes in working memory development explain the A-not-B error. Delay between searching under the cloth.

Question 27

Gerstadt (1994)

Answer 27

Day/Night Task. Show Sun/Moon and ask to say the opposite (Sun = Night). Develops over time.

Question 28

Butterworth (1977)

Answer 28

Inhibition helps to explain the A-not-B error. Trained the child to look under A and they can't inhibit this habit.

Question 29

Siegler (1995, 1996)

Answer 29

Types of strategies children use to count and how they switch them over time. Found that children keep switching their strategies. Microgenetic method - longitudinal/close-together sessions.

Question 30

Spelke - Core Knowledge

Answer 30

- Evolved Knowledge that allows us to learn - Knowledge is Experience expected rather than Experience Dependent - Cause & Effect, Grammar, Animates?

Question 31

Leslie & Keeble (1987)

Answer 31

Children cannot infer causality from young age. 2 balls - one causal, one not - surprised at the causal event when showed backward.

Question 32

Baillargeon & De Vos (1991)

Answer 32

Impossible event - Train meant to hit a box behind a curtain.

Question 33

Gergely (1995)

Answer 33

Little ball trying to join mum. Children looked longer at when the ball didn't take a straight path even though they were habituated to it (wall). Proves Animacy knowledge from early age.

Question 34

Theory Theory

Answer 34

Child has a schema about how the world works and experience fills in gaps and adjusts the schema.

Question 35

Keil (1989)

Answer 35

Schema of biology is different in young children. Raccoon --> Skunk/Coffeepot --> Birdfeeder study.

Question 36

Theory of Mind

Answer 36

Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.

Question 37

Premack and Woodruff (1978)

Answer 37

Do Chimpanzees have a theory of mind?

Question 38

Gopnik & Astington (1989)

Answer 38

Pencils inside a bag of M&M's/Smarties. Children make the mistake in assuming somebody else would say there are pencil inside just because they know.

Question 39

Wimmer & Perner (1983)

Answer 39

Sally-Ann Task. Ann switched the boxes. Children up to 4 would say that Sally will look for the ball in the new box, not the one she put the ball in.

Question 40

Callaghan (2005)

Answer 40

Mean age/Percentage children passing the Sally-Ann Task. Consistently solved after 48 months.

Question 41

Warneken & Tomasello

Answer 41

Capacity for altruistic behaviour/Theory of mind. Experimenter cant open a wardrobe - his hands full - the child helps.

Question 42

Mprton & Johnson (1991)

Answer 42

Face-Paddle study. Measuring the degree to which a baby will move its head to follow a certain face or a blank. Found Newborns have a strong preference fro tracking human-like faces. Dual-Process Theory: 1. Conspec - core knowledge for faces 2. Conlearn - learning mechanism for tracking human faces

Question 43

Sugita (2008)

Answer 43

Monkeys not exposed not any faces. Human or Monkey faces after. If exposed to Human faces for a month - preference for Human faces over Monkeys/Objects. If exposed to Monkeys, preference for Monkey faces over Human/Objects

Question 44

Scaife & Bruner (1975)

Answer 44

Joint Attention. Children by 11 months follow where another person is looking.

Question 45

Senju & Csibra (2008)

Answer 45

Children are much more likely to follow a person's gaze if that person makes eye contact with them first.

Question 46

Wellman & Liu (2004)

Answer 46

Diverse desires. Knowledge access. False Belief. Real-apparent emotion. (TASKS) - Abilities emerge at about 3-5.

Question 47

Zaitchik (1990)

Answer 47

Rubber Duck in a bath - takes a picture - moves the duck to a bed - asks child where the duck is on the picture - child says bed.

Question 48

Onishi & Bailargeon (2005)

Answer 48

Infants stare longer when a person reaches for the box in which the watermelon is rather than the box in which the person thinks the watermelon is in. Shows that 15-month olds have a theory of mind (if the task is easy enough)

Question 49

Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith (1985)

Answer 49

Children with Autisms have a difficulty passing Sally & Ann Task even though (in theory) they have the necessary skills.

Question 50

Senju (2009)

Answer 50

Adults with Asperger syndrome. Panels and toys. Can't guess where the person would look for an object - seemingly random choices. Suggests no theory of the mind, but the syndrome is associated with easier ToM in early development so wtf?.

Question 51

Corcoran, Mercer & Frith (1995)

Answer 51

Individuals with Schizophrenia tend to have difficulty passing ToM tasks

Question 52

Call & Tomasello (2008)

Answer 52

Chimpanzees engage in Rational imitation but not ToM.

Question 53

Bruner, Goodenow & Austin (1956)

Answer 53

Concept = Combination of necessary and sufficient features (EARLY ASSUMPTION)

Question 54

Rosch (1973)

Answer 54

Concept = Statistical summary of perceivable features. Prototype theory. (degrees to 'ideal')

Question 55

Murphy & Medin (1985)

Answer 55

Some features are more important than others when defining concepts.

Question 56

Armstrong, Gleitman & Gleitman (1983)

Answer 56

We have multiple different ways of representing the same concept e.g. 2 is a better even number than 176.

Question 57

Quinn (1993)

Answer 57

Cats pics. After habituation show a novel animal (dog). Children prefer to look at the novel animal. Children have concepts as are able to distinguish that dog is a novel concept to cat.

Question 58

Gelman & Bloom (2000)

Answer 58

Newspaper Hat. If told it folded like this at random (fell down) - children said it was a newspaper. If told it was folded like this on purpose - children said It was a hat.

Question 59

Gelman & Markman (1986)

Answer 59

Bat - Feeds milk. Bird - Feeds mashed food. Shown a bird that looks like a bat. Children say that the new bird would feed mash up food.

Question 60

Feigenson & Carey (2005)

Answer 60

Cookies in the bag. Children can't track more than 4 objects at a time.

Question 61

Wynn (1990)

Answer 61

Ask for 1 pebble = 1 pebble. Ask for 2 pebble = Handful of pebbles.

Question 62

Stereopsis

Answer 62

The perception of depth by combining the images from both eyes.

Question 63

Affordances

Answer 63

An affordance is the possibility of an action on an object or environment. Though additional meanings have developed, the original definition in psychology includes all actions that are physically possible. E.g. Door handle offers an affordance for how it must be gripped.

Question 64

Conservation

Answer 64

Notion that the quantitative properties of an object are invariant despite changes in the object's appearance e.g. Preoperational stage children --> Fail the how much water in the flask task.

Question 65

Deferred imitation paradigm

Answer 65

Where the infant imitates an event demonstrated some time earlier.

Question 66

Casual Reasoning

Answer 66

When we infer that events happening close together in time and space are linked in some casual way.