1
Q
tentative and testable statement
(prediction) about the relationship between two or
more variables.
-Predicts how the world will behave if the theory is
correct.
-Usually an “if-then” statement.
-Is falsifiable (capable of being shown to be
incorrect).
A
hypothesis
2
Q
well-developed set of ideas that propose
an explanation for observed phenomena
A
scientific theory
3
Q
Engaging in mindfulness activities designed to increase self-awareness
Journaling your thoughts and feelings
Practicing meditation to understand your inner self better
Reflecting on a situation and how you feel about it
Talking with a mental health professional while exploring your mental and emotional states
. Introspection involves some sort of special reflection on one’s own mental life that differs from the ordinary un-self-reflective flow of thought and action.
A
process of introspection
4
Q
- Emphasizes the role of the unconscious by
shaping behavior, thoughts, and feelings - Psychoanalysts seek to uncover repressed
memories, desires, and traumas - Psychoanalysts use techniques including
dream analysis and free association
A
Freud
5
Q
Concentrated on how behavior was
affected by its consequences
Studied the principles of modifying
behavior through reinforcement and
punishment
Behaviorism was the first school of
psychology to focus on actual
observable behavior, and not the
unconscious
- skinner’s box (rat, operant conditioning) This box had a lever that an animal (rat) could press to gain a reward (food or water). There was also another instrument kept outside that recorded their responses. These instruments displayed the process of reinforcement, which means whether an action encourages a particular response.
A
Skinner
6
Q
used the principles of
classical conditioning in the study of human
emotion.
Believed that all behavior could be studied as
a stimulus-response reaction.
Believed the principles of classical
conditioning could be used to condition
human emotions
- performed little albert experiment
A
Watson
7
Q
- with respect to neurotransmitters
- an electrical signal.
Neurotransmitters from nearby neurons attach to receptors on dendrites, causing the membrane potential to change
A
action potential
8
Q
- with respect to neurotransmitters
- level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active.
- Action potentials act on an all-or-none principle - the incoming signal is either sufficient to reach the threshold
of excitation or it is not.
A
threshold of excitation
9
Q
- with respect to neurotransmitters
membrane potential becomes more
negative making the neuron less likely to fire (inhibition)
A
hyperpolarization
10
Q
- with respect to neurotransmitters
membrane potential becomes less
negative making the neuron more likely to fire (excitation)
A
depolarization
11
Q
NERVOUS SYSTEM: central nervous system (CNS) : brain & spinal cord AND peripheral nervous system (PNS): Nerves to and from CNS
A
- PNS: somatic (touch, hearing- muscles that move the body) , autonomic (internal senses, smooth muscles in the gut, etc)
- automatic: sympathetic (emergency) and parasympathetic (housekeeping)
12
Q
Damage to the Frontal Lobe: Phineas Gage
While working as a railroad foreman, an accident
caused an iron rod to penetrate through Gage’s skull
and frontal lobe. After the accident, people noticed
changes in his personality.
A
Phineas Gage case
13
Q
Bottom-up processing: system in which perceptions are built from sensory input.
A
top-down processing: interpretation of sensations is influenced by available
knowledge, experiences, and thoughts.
14
Q
not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time
A
sensory adaptation
15
Q
Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention
A
inattentional blindness
16
Q
Binocular Cues: cue that relies on the use
of both eye
○ Binocular disparity: slightly different
view of the world that each eye
receives
A
● Monocular Cues: cue that relies on only
one eye
○ Linear perspective: when two parallel
lines seem to converge
○ Interposition: the partial overlap of
objects
17
Q
- generally, focus on human as a whole > individual part
An existential, phenomenological, and
process-based approach created on the
premise that individuals must be understood in the context of their ongoing relationships with the environment
Much of the practice has to do with research on sensation and perception
Some practices include:
1. Empty chair technique
2. Meditative breathing
3. Emotive Exaggeration
A
different gesalt principles
Figure–ground relationship
● Proximity
● Similarity
● Continuity
● Closure
18
Q
a biological rhythm that occurs over
approximately 24 hours
○ Generated by the suprachiasmatic
nucleus (SCN)
○ The sleep-wake cycle
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN),
located in the hypothalamus, serves as
the brain’s clock mechanism.
The clock sets itself with light
information received through
projections from the retina, allowing it
to synchronize with the outside world.
A
circadian rhythm
19
Q
BRAINWAVES DURING SLEEP
alpha- relatively low frequency, relatively
high amplitude, synchronized (stage 1)
beta- low frequency, low amplitude (stage 2)
delta- low frequency, high amplitude,
desynchronized (stage 3)
A
alpha, beta, delta, kappa (?) waves
20
Q
The process in which an automatic,
conditioned response is paired with a stimuli
Foundation of behavioral psychology paired with unconscious motives
Early experiments involved animals to study motivation
Classical conditioning – process by
which we learn to associate stimuli
and, consequently, to anticipate
events
● Pavlov realized that organisms have
2 types of responses to its
environment;
○ unconditioned (unlearned)
responses
○ conditioned (learned)
responses
A
classical conditioning
21
Q
Stimulus discrimination: when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar
A
● Stimulus generalization: when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
22
Q
The initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a
neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
○ Usually this requires there to be a very short time interval between the NS
and the UCS and for the pairing to repeated multiple times.
○ Sometimes conditioning can occur when the interval is up to several hours
and the pairing occurs only once (e.g. taste aversion)
A
acquisition
23
Q
decrease in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer
present with the CS
A
extinction
24
Q
Watson exposed Little Albert to certain stimuli and conditioned to fear them.
● Presented with neutral stimuli (rabbit, dog,cotton wool, a white rat etc).
● Watson then paired these with a loud sound every time Little Albert touched the stimulus that caused him to feel fear.
● After repeated pairings, Little Albert became fearful of the stimulus alone, such as the white rabbit.
Although initially conditioned to fear specific stimuli, they were all furry and therefore through stimulus generalization, Little Albert came to fear furry things,
including Watson in a Santa Claus mask.
A
little albert
25
Positive reinforcement – something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
a. Receiving a high grade after studying will
reinforce future study behavior
b. Being told “good job” after doing your chores
c. Getting a paycheck
Negative reinforcement – something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
a. Putting on a seatbelt to make the beeping sound go away
b. Taking away your child’s chores because
they kept their room clean all week
c. Taking away a homework assignment
because the classroom behaved well.
26
Positive punishment – something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
a. Scolding a student for talking during class
b. Putting your kid into time out because they hit their sibling
c. Adding more chores because the room was kept messy
Negative punishment – something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a
behavior.
a. Taking away a toy because a child misbehaves
b. Taking away dessert because a child didn’t finish their vegetables
27
categories of linguistic
information, images, ideas, or memories
● Used to see relationships among
different elements of experience
● Can be complex and abstract (e.g. the
idea of justice) or concrete (types of
birds
concepts
28
Was found at age 13 after being raised in neglectful and abusive conditions.
Grew up with virtually no social interaction and was unable to speak when found.
With help, Genie was able to acquire vocabulary but was not able to learn the grammatical aspects of language
genie
29
inability to perceive an object being
used for something other than what it was designed for.
Imagine you have a candle, thumbtacks and a box of
matches. You need to mount the candle on the wall and light
it. What do you do
functional fixedness
30
Analytical Intelligence- academic problem solving + computation
Creative Intelligence- imaginative, innovative, problem solving
Practical Intelligence- street smarts, common sense
triarchic theory of intelligence
31
.Linguistic
2.Logical-mathematical
3.Musical
4.Bodily kinesthetic
5.Spatial
6.Interpersonal
7.Intrapersonal
8.Naturalist
multiple intelligences model
32
the conscious repetition of information
to be remembered
rehearsal
33
Research suggests that suggestive police identification procedures (!!!) can lead to
alterations in an eyewitnesses memory leading to misidentification
big issues in eyewitness testimony
34
Anterograde amnesia: inability to remember new information after point of trauma.
Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory (partial or complete) for events that occurred prior to the trauma
35
sleep: state in which we experience very low levels of physical activity and physical awareness that is distinct from periods of rest
elatonin release is stimulated by
darkness, which makes us sleepy, and is inhibited by daylight
● !!!!!!Pineal gland: an endocrine structure in the brain that releases melatonin
● Sleep regulation: the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating the cycle with the outside world
Have a well-developed understanding of the different stages of sleep
36
Comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and gila
● Bilateral
● Separated into distinct lobes but all areas interact with one another
The left hemisphere controls the
right side of the body
● The right hemisphere controls the
left side of the body
● Lateralization: concept that each
hemisphere of the brain is
associated with specialized
functions
- corpus callosum- connects left + right hemisphere of the brain
brain
37
Delivers messages to and from the brain
● Has its own system of reflexes
● Functionally organized into 30 segments, each connected to a specific part of the body through the
PNS.
spinal cord
38
- The cerebral cortex – higher level
processes (The surface of the brain that is
associated with out highest mental
capabilities such as consciousness,
thought, emotion, reasoning, language
and memory.)
● Thalamus - sensory relay
● Hypothalamus - homeostasis
● Pituitary gland – master gland of the
endocrine system
● Limbic system – emotion and
memory circuit
forebrain structures
39
nvolved in executive functioning, motor
control, emotion, and language
● Motor cortex: strip of cortex involved in
planning and coordinating movement
● Prefrontal Cortex: responsible for higher
level cognitive functioning
● Broca’s Area: region in the brain
responsible for language production
ex. gage
frontal lobe
40
- Transitional phase occurring
between wakefulness and sleep
● Rates of respiration and
heartbeat slow down
● Overall muscle tension and core
body temperature decrease
● Alpha waves
stage 1 of sleep
41
The body goes into deeper
relaxation
● Theta waves (Light sleep, deep meditation, creativity, emotional processing)
● Sleep spindles – rapid burst of
high frequency brainwaves.
● K-complexes – very high
amplitude pattern of brain activity
stage 2 of sleep
42
● Slow wave sleep
● Delta waves (deep sleep, healing, restoration)
● Respiration and heart rate slows down further
stage 3 of sleep
43
● Rapid eye movements
● Paralysis of voluntary movements
● Dreams
● Brain waves are similar to those seen during wakefulness
REM
44
Defined by difficulty staying or falling asleep for at least three nights a week for at least one months time
Contributing Factors: Age, Drug use, Exercise, Mental status, Bedtime routines
Treatment: Stress management, Changes in problematic behaviors that contribute to insomnia, Cognitive behavioral therapy
Insomnia
45
Unwanted motor behavior and experiences through the sleep cycle
- sleep walking, rem sleep disorder, restless leg syndrome, night terrors
Parasomnia
46
Occurs when individuals stop breathing
during their sleep, usually for 10 to 20
seconds or longer
Obstructive – airway becomes blocked
and air is prevented from entering the
lungs.
Central – CNS fails to initiate breaths.
sleep apnea
47
An irresistible urge to fall asleep during
waking hours.
Shares many features of REM sleep
including:
Cataplexy – loss of muscle tone while
awake or in some cases complete
paralysis of the voluntary muscles.
Hypnagogic hallucinations - vivid,
dream-like hallucinations.
narcolepsy
48
● Recording the electrical activity of
the brain via electrodes on the
scalp
● Using caps with electrodes,
modern EEG research can study
the precise timing of the overall
brain activities by tracking
amplitude and frequency of said
brainwaves
EEG SCAN (electroencephalography)
49
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) -
magnetic fields used to produce a picture
of the tissue being imaged.
Functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) - MRI that show changes
in metabolic activity over time.
50
● Shows activity in different parts of
the brain
● Involves injecting individuals with
a mildly radioactive substance
and monitoring changes in blood
flow to different regions of the
brain
PET Scan (positron emission tomography)
51
● Involves x-rays and creates an
image through x-rays passing
through varied densities within
the brain
● can be used to show
brain tumors
CT scan
52
Before conditioning
● Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (food)
● Unconditioned response (UCR) – a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in
response to food)
During conditioning
● Neutral stimulus (NS) – stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell – does
not cause salivation by itself prior to conditioning)
● During conditioning, the NS and the UCS are paired repeatedly
○ Bell(NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
After conditioning
● Conditioned stimulus (CS) – stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with
an unconditioned stimulus (Bell)
● Conditioned response (CR) – the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus.
○ Bell(NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
classical conditioning in pavlov's dog
53
organisms learn to
associate a behavior and its consequences
b. Based on the law of effect
c. Pleasant consequences/desired results →
behavior is more likely to occur again
d. Unpleasant consequence/undesired result →
behavior is less likely to occur again.
operant conditioning
54
● tendency to make a decision based on an example,
information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it
may not be the best example to inform your decision.
Availability heuristic
55
tendency to focus on one piece of information when making a
decision or solving a problem.
anchoring bias
56
tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing
beliefs.
confirmation bias
57
leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was
predictable, even though it wasn’t.
hindsight bias
58
involves enhancing our
memories of the past.
● People remember events in a way
that makes them look better.
egocentric bias
59
-involves racial and
gender biases.
stereotype bias
60
tendency to unintentionally stereotype someone or
something.
representative bias
61
encoding of words and their meanings
○ Most effective form of encoding. Attaching meaning to information makes it easier to recall later
- involves deeper level of processing
semantic encoding
62
encoding of images
○ Words that create a mental image, such as car, dog and book (concrete words) are easier to recall than words such as level, truth and
value (abstract words)
visual encoding
63
encoding of sounds
acoustic encoding
64
When observations may be
skewed to align with observer expectations.
observer bias
65
tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs.
confirmation bias
66
participant expectations skew the results of the study
participant bias
67
Unfortunately, the publicized claims led many people to still believe that vaccinations cause autism (now redacted), The lead researcher had financial interests in establishing
a link between vaccines and autism
experimental bias
68
Usually occurs during slow-wave sleep.
parasomnia- sleep walking
69
● Occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur.
● Often treated with Clonazepam (an anti-anxiety medication).
parasomnia- rem sleep disorder
70
● Involves uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are relieved by moving the legs.
● Can be treated with a variety of medications.
parasomnia- restless leg syndrome
71
Involved in processing various
sensory and perceptual
information
● Contains the primary
somatosensory cortex
● Somatosensory cortex: essential
for processing sensory
information from across the
body, such as touch,
temperature, and pain
○ Organized topographically
parietal lobe
72
temporary storage system that processes incoming
sensory memory.
○ Lasts about 20 seconds.
○ Capacity is usually about 7 items +/-2
(discovered by George Miller).
● are either discarded or stored
in long-term memory
short term memory
73
The continuous
storage of information
● It has no limit and is like the
information you store on the hard
drive of a computer
long term memory
74
memories of facts and events we can consciously
remember and recall/declare.
Semantic: knowledge about words,
concepts and language.
Episodic: information about events we
have personally experienced.
The what, where, when of an event.
Also called autobiographical memory.
explicit memory
75
Associated with hearing, memory,
emotion, and some aspects of
language
● Located near the temples
● The auditory cortex: strip of
cortex in the temporal lobe
responsible for processing
auditory information
● Wernicke’s area: important for
speech comprehension
temporal lobe
76
Associated with visual processing.
● Contains the primary visual cortex
which is responsible for interpreting
incoming visual information.
● Organized retinotopically.
occipital lobe
77
serves as the relay center of
the brain where most senses (excluding
smell) are routed before being directed to
other areas of the brain for processing.
thalamus
78
Involved in mediating emotional
response and memory
● Made up of a number of different
structures:
○ Amygdala: involved in our experience
of emotion, tying emotional meaning
to our memories, and processing
fears
○ Hippocampus: structure associated
with learning and memory
○ Hypothalamus: regulates
homeostatic processes including body
temperature, appetite, and blood
pressure
limbic system
79
Reticular formation - important in
regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal,
alertness, and motor activity.
Substantia Nigra - where dopamine is
produced; involved in control of
movement.
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) - where
dopamine is produced; associated with
mood, reward, and addiction.
midbrain
80
Medulla: controls automated
processes like breathing, blood
pressure, and heart rate
Pons: connects the brain and the
spinal cord; involved in regulating
brain activity during sleep
Cerebellum: controls our balance,
coordination, movement, and motor skills. It is thought to be important in processing some types of memory
the hindbrain
81
encoding of
details that takes time and effort
○ Remembering what you studied last
effortful encoding
82
encoding of
details like time, space, frequency, and
the meaning of words
automatic encoding
83
views development as occurring in unique stages
(specific times or ages).
discontinuous development
84
views development as a cumulative process,
gradually improving on existing skills.
continuous development
85
Nature: biology and genetics.
Nurture: environment and culture
this can be answered by looking at the interaction between nature and nurture usually in twin/adoption studies
86
Sigmund Freud’s theory of development
● Believed that childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults
● Viewed development as discontinuous
● Developed stages of osychosexual development
● Believed that lack of proper nurturance and parents during a stage could lead to a child
becoming stuck or fixated on that stage
● Claimed that children’s pleasure seeking urges are focused on different erogenous
zones at each of the five stages of development
○ Oral
○ Anal
○ Phallic
○ Latency
○ Genital
psychosexual theory
87
Emphasizes the social nature of
development
● Argued that personality development
takes place across the lifespan and
not just in childhood
● Based on his belief that social
interactions affect our sense of self
(ego identity)
● There are 8 stages to this theory
erikson psychosocial theory
88
Trust vs. mistrust 0-1 years Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment
and affection, will be met.
2 Autonomy vs shame/doubt 1-3 years Develop a sense of independence in many tasks.
3 Initiative vs guilt 3-6 years Take initiative on some activities - may develop guilt when
unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped.
4 Industry vs inferiority 7-11
years
Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense
of inferiority when not.
5 Identity vs confusion 12-18
years
Experiment with and develop identity and roles.
6 Intimacy vs isolation 19-29
years
Establish intimacy and relationships with others.
7 Generativity vs stagnation 30-64
years
Contribute to society and be part of a family.
8 Integrity vs despair 65+ Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.
erikson psychosocial stages of development
89
Focused on children’s cognitive
growth and theorized that cognitive
abilities develop through specific
stages
- schemata, assimilation, accommodation
piaget theory of development
cognitive theory
90
0-2 Sensorimotor World experienced through
senses and actions.
Object permanence – understanding
that even if something’s out of sight, it
still exists
Stranger anxiety
2-6 Preoperational Use words and images to
represent things, but lack logical
reasoning.
Pretend play
Egocentrism – unable to take the
perspective of others.
Language development
7-11 Concrete
operational
Understand concrete events and
analogies logically; perform
arithmetical operations.
Conversation
Mathematical transformations
12+ Formal operational Formal operations.
Utilize abstract reasoning.
Abstract logic
Moral reasoning
piaget's stages of cognitive development
91
Level 1 pre-conventional morality
stage 1: obedience & punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment
stage 2: individual interest- behavior driven by self interest and rewards
level 2- conventional morality
stage 3 interpersonal- behavior driven by social approval
stage 4- authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order
level 3- post conventional morality
stage 5- social contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights
stage 6- universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles
theory of moral development
92
Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2)
Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
(one-cell structure).
Mitosis – process of cell division.
The zygote divides and cells become more specialized, forming organs and
body parts.
Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8)
After the zygote has 150 cells it travels down the fallopian tubes and
implants itself in the lining of the uterus.
The zygote is now an embryo (multi-cellular organism).
Organs begin to function (heart begins to beat).
Basic structures develop that will become the head, chest and abdomen.
Placenta – structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and
oxygen from the mother to the embryo via the umbilical cord.
Fetal Stage (Weeks 9-40)
During the fetal stage, the baby's
brain develops and the body adds
size and weight, until the fetus
reaches full-term development.
prenatal development
93
Collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.
Research has found alcohol to be the leading preventable cause of intellectual disability (ID) in children in the
U.S.
Physical:
● Small head size.
● Abnormal facial features.
Cognitive:
● Poor judgement.
● Poor impulse control.
● Higher rates of ADHD.
● Learning issues.
● Lower IQ scores.
prenatal influences: fetal alcohol syndrome
94
inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation (help the newborn survive)
newborn reflexes
95
baby turns its head towards something that touches its cheek
rooting reflexes
96
suck on objects placed by the mouth
sucking reflexes
97
cling to objects placed in hands
grasping reflexes
98
baby spreads arms and pulls them back in when they are startled/feel like they are falling.
moro reflexes
99
Not yet fully developed at birth.
● Vision is the least developed sense.
● Prefer human voices, specifically their mothers over a stranger’s.
● Can distinguish between the smell of their mother and others.
sensory abilities
100
Growth
Occurs rapidly during infancy.
Slows down at around ages 4-6.
Girls have a growth spurt at age 8/9 – about 12
human physical development
101
Nervous System
Blooming period - neural pathways form thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood.
Pruning period – neural connections are reduced during childhood and adolescence to allow the brain to function more efficiently.
Size of the brain increases rapidly (especially the frontal lobe duirng ages 3-6).
55% of adult size at age 2, 90% of adult size at age 6
human physical development
102
Motor Development
Motor skills – ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.
Occurs in an orderly sequence – becomes more advanced.
Fine motor skills – focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., gripping a pencil).
Gross motor skills – focus on large muscle groups that control arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running).
human physical development
103
Baillargeon (1987):
Very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with
those objects.
In Baillargeon’s study, infants observed a truck (a) roll down an unobstructed track, (b) roll down an
unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what
appeared to be an obstruction.
Infants spent more time looking at (c) suggesting that they knew solid objects cannot pass through
each other
104
6-9 months – can shake their head “no”.
9-12 months – respond to verbal requests (e.g., wave bye-bye).
8 months - understand object permanence.
Toddlers – understand someone will come back when they leave the
room, will look in appropriate places when asked to find objects.
3-5 years – learn to count, name colors, know their name and age,
can make small decisions, understand basic time concepts and
sequencing, enjoy pretend play (can think symbolically), become
more curious (always asking ”why?”), develop theory of mind.
6-11 years – Thinking becomes more logical and organized,
understand past, present, and future, can plan and work towards
goals, understand cause-and-effect relationships, basic math skills.
Attention span is limited until approximately age 11
105
a long-standing connection or
bond with others
attachment
106
● Separated newborn monkeys from their
mothers and presented them with two
surrogate mothers.
○ One made out of wire mesh, could
dispense milk.
○ One made from cloth, did not dispense
milk.
● Monkeys spent time clinging to the cloth
monkey and only went to the wire monkey
for food.
● Results suggest that feelings of comfort and
security are the critical components to
maternal-infant bonding.
Attachment: Harlow
107
● Defined attachment as the affectional bond/tie that an infant forms with the mother.
● Bond must be made with primary caregiver in order to have normal social and
emotional development.
● Saw attachment as an all-or-nothing process.
● Secure base: parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he
explores his surroundings.
Requirements for a healthy attachment:
1.Caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs.
2.The caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions.
attachment: bowlby
108
Strange Situation:
● Mother (caregiver) and infant are placed in a room together, with toys.
● Stranger enters the room and mother leaves.
● After a few minutes, mother returns to the room to comfort the child.
Through the Strange Situation, Ainsworth identified 3 styles of attachment. A fourth was later
identified.
1.Secure 3. Resistant
2.Avoidant 4. Disorganized
attachment: ainsworth
109
child uses the parent as a secure base from which to explore.
● Child was distressed when mother left, happy to see them when they returned.
● Common when caregivers are sensitive and responsive to needs
Ainsworth (attachment- secure
110
unresponsive to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent
leaves.
● Child was slow to show positive reaction when mother returned.
● Common when caregivers are insensitive and inattentive to needs
ainsworth attachment- avoidant
111
show clingy behavior, but then reject mothers attempts to interact with them.
● Child did not explore the toys, became extremely disturbed and angry when mother left, were difficult to
comfort when mother returned.
● Common when caregiver is inconsistent with level of response
ainsworth attachment- resistant
112
show odd behavior around caregiver.
● Behaved oddly when mother left (froze/ran around erratically), tried to run away when mother returned.
● Common when child has been abused
ainsworth attachment- disorganized
113
Development of a positive sense of self is the main psychosocial milestone of childhood.
Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, more independent, do better in school and are more
willing to try new activities.
self concept (self-awareness)
114
Age 2-4:
Enjoy playing with other children.
Can label themselves as boy or girl - through play, children explore and come to understand gender roles
Age 4:
Can cooperate and share.
Can initiate tasks and carry out plans.
Age 6:
Can identify themselves in terms of group membership
children display increased social behavior after establishing a self concept
115
parents give children reasonable demands and consistent
limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child’s point of view
authoritative style parenting
116
parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are
often rigid, and express little warmth to the child
authoritarian style parenting
117
parents make few demands and rarely use punishment
permissive style parenting
118
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as
neglectful; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands
uninvolved parenting
119
positive emotions, adapt well to change, and capable of
regulating emotions
More likely to elicit warm and responsive parenting
easy temperament
120
innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with
the environment
temperament
121
negative emotions, difficulty adapting to change and
regulating emotions.
More likely to evoke irritation and cause parents to withdraw.
difficult temperament
122
maturing of the adrenal glands
adrenarche
123
maturing of the sex glands
Secondary sexual characteristics develop.
● Breasts and hips in girls.
● Facial hair and deepened voice in boys
gondarche
124
beginning of menstrual periods (usually around 12-13 years old)
menarche
125
first ejaculation (around 13-14 years old)
● Growth spurts in both sexes.
● Girls reach their adult height by 16.
● Boys reach their adult height by 17
spermarche
126
the ability to take the perspective of others and
feel concern for others.
● Increases in adolescence.
● An important part of social problem solving and conflict avoidance.
cognitive empathy (theory of mind)
127
Adolescents refine their sense of self as they relate to others.
May adopt the values and roles that parents expect for them.
May develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group.
Peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.
Parent-Child Relationships
Warm, healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with:
● Better grades.
● Fewer school behavior problems
128
● Emerging adulthood is a relatively
newly defined period of lifespan
development.
● 18 years to mid 20s.
● Identity exploration is focused on
work and love.
129
- 20-40s
- physical abilities are at their peak
early adulthood
130
- 40s-60s
Physical decline is gradual.
● Skin loses elasticity (wrinkles form).
● Visual acuity decreases.
● Women experience menopause.
● Men and women both tend to gain
weight.
● Hair begins to thin and turn gray
middle adulthood
131
60s+
● Skin continues to lose elasticity.
● Reaction time slows further.
● Muscle strength diminishes.
● Smell, taste, hearing, vision decline.
● Physical declines of middle and late
adulthood can be minimized with
proper exercise, nutrition, and an active
lifestyle
late adulthood
132
(information, skills, and strategies gathered through
experience) remains steady or improves.
crystallized intelligence
133
(information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory) begins to
decline.
fluid intelligence
134
Job satisfaction is closely tied to work that:
● Involves contact with other people.
● Is interesting.
● Provides opportunities for advancement.
● Allows some independence
employment & well being
135
Positive influences on well-being include:
● Having a stable marriage.
● Having children (initially stressful but rewarding later).
● Socioemotional selectivity theory – as we get older, our social support and
friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier
years
relationships and well being
136
as we get older, our social support and
friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier
years
socioemotional selectivity theory
137
5 stages of grief
1. denial
2. anger
3. bargaining
4. depression
5. acceptance
138
intrinsic motivation is diminished
when extrinsic motivation is given
Explanations of differences:
1.Type of reinforcement.
● Tangible rewards appear to decrease intrinsic
motivation.
● Intangible rewards appear to increase motivation.
2. Expectation of extrinsic reward – intrinsic motivation is
more likely to decrease if extrinsic reward is expected
overjustification effect
139
behavior is driven by
instincts (which aid survival)
Proposed instincts included a mother’s protection of her baby, the urge to lick sugar, and
hunting prey
instinct theory of motivation
140
Maintenance of homeostasis is important in directing behavior.
Deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs resulting in psychological drive
states that direct behavior to meet the need and bring the system back to homeostasis.
Emphasizes the role that habits (pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage) play in
behavioral responses → If a behavior successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to
engage in that behavior in future
drive theory
141
Arousal theories assert that there is an optimal level of arousal that we all try to maintain.
Under Aroused →Become bored, seek stimulation.
Over Aroused → Engage in behaviors to reduce arousal
arousal theory of motivation
142
an individual’s belief in her own capability to complete a task
Albert Bandura theorized that self-efficacy plays a role in motivating behavior
Social Motives:
Need for achievement: drives accomplishment and performance.
Need for affiliation: encourages positive interactions with others.
Need for intimacy: causes us to seek deep, meaningful relationships
self efficacy
143
maslow's hierarchy of needs- draw out
144
1.Empty stomach → stomach contracts → hunger pangs and
secretion of chemical messages that travel to the brain as a
signal to initiation feeding behavior.
2.Low blood glucose levels → pancreas and liver generate
chemical signals that induce hunger to initiate feeding behavior
before eating
145
Satiation – feeling of fullness and satisfaction causing eating
behavior to stop.
1.Increase in blood glucose levels → pancreas and liver send
signals to shut off hunger and eating.
2.Food passes through gastrointestinal tract → satiety signals
are sent to the brain.
3.Fat cells release leptin (satiety hormone)
after eating
146
Gene-environment interactions.
Number of calories consumed versus number of calories burned in daily activity.
Metabolic rate – the amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time.
Various between individuals.
People with a high metabolic rate burn off calories more easily than those with lower rates of metabolism
factors affecting body weight
147
Set-Point theory – each individual has an ideal body weight/set point, which is resistant to change.
Set point is genetically determined.
Efforts to move weight significantly from the set-point are resisted by compensatory changes in energy
intake/expenditure.
Based on the observation that people’s weight generally fluctuates within a narrow margin.
Fails to account for the influences of social and environmental factors
regulation of body weight
148
2/3 U.S. adults struggle with issues related to being
overweight.
● As well as factors such as genetics and energy
intake/expenditure, socioeconomic status and the
physical environment can contribute to obesity.
○ May not feel comfortable walking or biking in a
neighborhood with high crime rates which limits
physical activity.
○ May not be able to afford healthy food options.
● Health risks
○ Cardiovascular disease
○ Stroke
○ Type Two Diabetes
○ Breast Cancer
○ Infertility Arthritis
○ Liver disease
○ Sleep apnea
○ Colon Cancer
obesity
149
● Involves engaging in binge eating behavior, followed by attempts to compensate for the large
amount of food consumed.
● Compensation - includes vomiting, laxatives, excessive exercise.
● Health consequences - can include kidney failure, heart failure, and tooth decay.
● Psychological problems – depression, anxiety, increased risk for substance abuse
bulimia nervosa
150
Maintenance of body weight below average through starvation and/or exercise.
● Distorted body image - view themselves as fat even though they are not.
● Health consequences – can include bone loss, heart failure, kidney failure, amenorrhea
(cessation of menstrual period), reduced function of the gonads, in some cases death.
● Psychological problems – anxiety disorders, mood disorders, substance abuse
anorexia nervosa
151
Caucasian females, ages 15-19, from
Western societies are the most at-risk
population.
● Many blame the media for its messages
of a thin ideal.
● Genetics may also predispose people to
these disorders.
● Low self-esteem, other mental illnesses.
● Life transitions, stress.
● Experiences such as abuse and
bullying.
● Personality types (perfectionism).
● Family issues
eating disorder risk
152
Disorders that involve abnormal hypothalamic
function are often associated with
hypogonadism (reduced function of the
gonads) and reduced sexual function.
● Hormones secreted by endocrine glands
(testosterone) influence sexual motivation and
behavior.
sexual behavior- hypothalamus
153
● Involved in motivation for sexual behavior, but
do not affect the ability to engage in it.
● Damage in rats results in a decreased
motivation to engage in sexual behavior, while
ability to do so is still intact
sexual behavior- amygdala and nucleus accumbens
154
Findings:
1. Women are as interested and
experienced in sex as men.
2. Both males and females masturbate,
without negative health consequences.
3. Homosexual acts are fairly common
kinsey's research findings
155
used to categorize an
individual's sexual orientation
kinsey scale
156
emotional and erotic
attraction toward another individual.
(not a choice)
sexual orientation
157
1.Excitement – arousal phase (erection,
lubrication).
2.Plateau – Increased swelling and blood
flow to labia minora, pre-ejaculatory fluid.
3.Orgasm – rhythmic contractions,
ejaculation.
4.Resolution – return to unaroused state.
master's and johnson research
158
one’s sense of being male or
female.
In most cases, our gender identities correspond to
our biological sex but not always.
gender identity
159
diagnosis describing individuals
who do not identify as the gender that most people
would assume they are.
1. Must persist for at least six months.
2. Must result in significant distress or dysfunction
to meet diagnosis criteria
gender dysphoria
160
use of hormones to
make one’s body look more like the opposite-sex
transgender hormone therapy
161
Prolonged, less intense, affective state.
Does not occur in response to something we experience.
May not be consciously recognized or intentional
mood
162
A subjective state of being that we often use to describe
our feelings.
Relatively intense and occurs in response to an
experience,
Consciously experienced and intentional.
Components of emotion: physiological arousal,
psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences.
Informed by experiences, backgrounds, and cultures
emotion
163
culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of
displays of emotions that are acceptable.
Despite varying cultural display rules, recognition and production of facial expressions of
certain emotions are universal
cultural display rule
164
the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently
think, feel, and behave in specific ways
personality
165
Proposed that the distances between bumps on the
skull reveal a person’s personality traits, character,
and mental abilities.
Discredited for lack of empirical support.
(a)Gall developed a chart that depicted which areas
of the skull corresponded to particular personality
traits or characteristics (Hothersall, 1995).
(b)An 1825 lithograph depicts Gall examining the
skull of a young woman.
gall phrenology
166
Agreed with Galen that individuals could be categorized into one of
the four temperaments.
Developed a list of traits to describe the personality of each of the four
temperaments.
kant
167
Suggested that personality could be described using two major axes:
1.Emotional/non-emotional – separated strong emotions
(melancholic, choleric) from the weak emotions (phlegmatic,
sanguine).
2.Changeable/unchangeable – divided the changeable
temperaments (choleric, sanguine) from the unchangeable ones
(melancholic, phlegmatic).
wilhelm wundt
168
● First comprehensive theory of personality explaining both normal and abnormal behaviors.
● Proposed that unconscious drives influenced by sex, aggression and childhood sexuality
influence personality.
Neo-Freudians:
● Agreed that childhood experiences matter.
● Less emphasis on sex.
● Focused on the social environment and effects of culture on personality.
sigmund freud
169
Freud suggested that slips of
the tongue (saying a word you did not intend
to say) are sexual/aggressive urges
accidently slipping out of our unconscious
freudian slip
170
mental activity that we are
unaware of and are unable to access.
unconscious
171
Contains primitive urges (for hunger, thirst, and sex).
● Impulsive, instinctual.
● Operates on the ”pleasure principle” – seeks immediate gratification.
id
172
● Develops through interactions with others, learning social rules for right and wrong.
● Moral compass that tells us how we should behave based on rules..
● Strives for perfection.
● Judges behavior - leads to feelings of pride or guilt.
superego
173
Attempts to balance the id with the superego.
● Rational
● Operates on the “reality principle” – helps the id satisfy desires in a realistic way.
● The part of the personality seen by others.
ego (self)
174
A person’s feelings that they lack worth and
don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society.
inferiority complex
175
- inferiority complex
- Social motives thought to be the force behind thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors.
● Placed focus on social connections during childhood development.
● Believed happiness can be found in working together for the
betterment of all.
● Viewed main goal of psychology to be “to recognize the equal rights
and equality of others”.
● Saw conscious processes as more important
● Saw birth order as important, theorized that it shapes our personality
● Adler identified three fundamental social tasks all individuals must
experience.
○ Occupational tasks – careers.
○ Societal tasks – friendship.
○ Love tasks – finding an intimate partner
adler
176
Focused on working to balance conscious and unconscious
thought
jung analytical psych
177
universal version of personal unconscious, holding mental
patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us
jung collective unconscious
178
patterns that exist in our collective unconscious across cultures/societies.
○ Represented by universal themes in various cultures reflecting common
experiences of people around the world.
○ Integration of unconscious archetypal aspects of the self seen as part of
self-realization process
jung archetypes
179
A mask that we consciously adopt.
○ Derived from conscious experiences and our collective unconscious.
○ A compromise between our true self and the self that society expects us to be
(hiding parts of the self that do not align with society's expectations)
jung persona
180
Agreed with Jung that individuals have the potential for self-realization and believed the
goal of psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self
● Disagreed with the idea of penis envy, and suggested that any jealousy is culturally
based
● Men have womb envy because they cannot give birth
● Unconscious anxiety
○ Normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety when needs are not met
● 3 styles of coping used by children to relieve anxiety:
○ Moving toward people – affiliation and dependence.
○ Moving against people – aggression and assertiveness.
○ Moving away from people – detachment and isolation.
karen horney
181
We learn to behave in particular ways.
● Personality is shaped by reinforcements
and consequences in the environment.
● Personality develops over our entire life.
● Personality can vary as we experience
new situations.
the behavioral perspective
182
emphasizes both learning and
cognition as sources of individual difference in personality
social-cognitive theory
183
cognitive processes (beliefs,
expectations, and personality characteristics), behavior, and
context (environment/situation) all interact
reciprocal determinism
184
learning by observing someone
else’s behavior and its consequences.
● Teaches us which behaviors are acceptable and
rewarded in our culture.
● Teaches us which behaviors are socially unacceptable.
observational learning
185
level of confidence in our own abilities,
developed through social experiences
self efficacy
186
beliefs about the power we have over our lives.
● Proposed as a cognitive factor that affects learning and personality development
locus of control (julian rotter)
187
tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of
our efforts
internal locus of control
188
tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control
external locus of control
189
Behavior was inconsistent across different situations but more consistent within
situations.
● Behavior is consistent in equivalent situations across time.
Marshmallow Study:
● Study on self-regulation (aka will power) – ability to delay gratification.
● Revealed that children differ in levels of self-control.
● Children that had more self-control (waited for two marshmallows) in preschool were
more successful in high school.
● Children that had poorer self-control (took the one marshmallow) in preschool were
more likely to have academic and behavioral problems.
mischel
190
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart:
Found that identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities.
Suggests the heritability of some personality traits.
Traits with more than a 0.50 heritability ratio – leadership, obedience to authority, a sense of
well-being, alienation, resistance to stress, and fearfulness
Temperament:
Appears very early in life
Two dimensions of temperament important to adult personality:
● Reactivity – how we respond to new or challenging environmental stimuli.
● Self-regulation – ability to control responses
191
Endomorphs – relaxed, comfortable, good-humored, even-tempered, sociable, and tolerant.
Mesomorphs – adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless.
Ectomorphs – Anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful, quiet, and private
somatotypes
192
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
Hans and Sybil Eysenck focused on temperament
and believed that our personality traits are influenced
by our genetic inheritance.
2 specific personality dimensions:
1.Extroversion/Introversion.
● High in extroversion – sociable, outgoing.
● High in introversion – high need to be alone,
engage in solitary behaviors.
2.Neuroticism/Stability.
● High in neuroticism – anxious, overactive
sympathetic nervous system.
● High in stability – more emotionally stable.
193
Trait Theorists
Believe that people have certain traits (characteristics or
ways of behaving).
Gordon Allport
Found 4,500 words in the English language to describe
people and organized them into three categories.
1.Cardinal traits – dominates entire personality (rare).
2.Central traits – make up our personality.
3.Secondary traits – less obvious or consistent, present
under certain circumstances (e.g., preferences, attitudes).
Raymond Cattell
Narrowed Allport’s list to about 171 traits.
Identified 16 dimensions of personality – instead of a
present being present or absent, people are scored on a
continuum.
assessment based on Cattell's 16PF questionnaire (http://openstax.org/l/cattell)
194
In the Five Factor Model, each person has five
traits, known as the Big Five personality traits.
Each trait is scored on a continuum from high to
low.
The first letter of each trait spells the mnemonic
OCEAN.
1.Openness to experience
2.Conscientiousness
3.Extroversion.
4.Agreeableness.
5.Neuroticism
195
Culture is one of the most important environmental factors that influences personality.
Culture – beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society.
Are personality traits the same across cultures or are there variations?
● There are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variation in
personalities.
Examples:
● Asian cultures – more collectivist, tend to be less extroverted.
● Central and South American cultures – tend to score higher on openness to
experience.
● Europeans – tend to score higher on neuroticism
196
● Value independence, competition, and personal achievement.
● Mainly Western nations such as the U.S. England, and Australia.
● People display more personally oriented personality traits
individualist cultures
197
● Value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs.
● Asia, Africa, and South America.
● People display more socially oriented personality traits.
collectivist culture
198
● Personality testing is often used:
● To screen applicants for employment
and job training.
● In criminal cases and custody battles.
● To assess psychological disorders.
● Objective test to assess personality.
● Often use multiple-choice items or
numbered scales (Likert scales).
● Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) is the most common
self report inventories
199
Projective testing relies on projection (defense mechanism) to assess
unconscious processes.
Ambiguous cards are shown to individual who is asked to tell a story,
interpret an image, or complete a sentence.
Individual will project feelings, impulses, and desires onto the cards.
Rorschach Inkblot Test – individual interprets a series of symmetrical
inkblot cards, revealing unconscious feelings and struggles.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – individual tells a story about 8-12
ambiguous cards, giving insight into their social world, revealing hopes,
fears, interests, and goals.
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB) – Individual is asked to
complete 40 incomplete sentences as quickly as possible to reveal
desires, fears, and struggles
projective testing
200
emotions and attitudes, the self, and social cognition
intrapersonal topics
201
helping behavior, aggression, prejudice and discrimination, attraction
and close relationship, and group processes and intergroup relationships
interpersonal topic
202
the view that our
behavior is determined by internal
factors (attribute of a person such as
personality traits and temperament).
○ Used by personality psychologists
○ Favored in the U.S
dispositionism
203
the view that our
behavior and actions are determined by
our immediate environment and
surroundings.
○ Used by social psychologists
situationism
204
tendency to overemphasize
internal factors as explanations/attributions for the behavior
of other people and underestimate the power of the situation.
People tend to fail to recognize when a person’s behavior is
due to situational variables
Research suggests that people from an individualistic culture have the greatest tendency to
commit the fundamental attribution error
fundamental attribution error
205
phenomenon of explaining other
people’s behaviors are due to internal factors and our own
behaviors are due to situational forces.
● We often make the fundamental attribution error
because we do not have enough information to make a
situational explanation about the person’s behavior.
● However, when we explain our own behaviors, we have
more information available and are more likely to make
situational explanations
actor-observer bias
206
tendency of an individual to take credit by
making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes
but situational or external attributions for negative outcomes.
● Protects self-esteem - allows people to feel good about
their accomplishments
self serving bias
207
Attribution: a belief about the cause of a result.
1.Locus of control – internal vs external.
2.Stability –extent to which the circumstances are changeable.
3.Controllability – extent to which the circumstances can be
controlled.
208
belief that people get the outcomes they deserve.
● Based on the belief that the world is a fair place and therefore good people experience
positive outcomes, and bad people experience negative outcomes.
● Allows people to feel that the world is predictable and we have some control over life
outcomes.
just world hypothesis
209
a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group.
● Being a student, son, lifeguard, or aspiring doctor.
● We each have several social roles.
● Defined by culturally shared knowledge.
● Behavior related to social roles varies across situations
social role
210
a group’s expectation of what is appropriate
and acceptable behavior for its members.
● How are we supposed to behave and think?
● What are we expected to talk about?
What are we expected to wear?
social norm
211
person’s knowledge about the sequence of
events expected in a specific setting.
● How do you act when you walk into an elevator, on
the first day of school, in a restaurant?
● Scripts vary between cultures.
● Important sources of information to guide behavior in
situations.
script
212
Demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and
scripts.
● A mock prison was constructed and participants (male college
students), were randomly assigned to play the role of
prisoners or guards.
● In a very short amount of time, the guards started to harass
the prisoner in an increasingly sadistic manner.
● Prisoners began to show signs of severe anxiety and
hopelessness.
● The two week study had to be ended after six days.
● Social norms required guards to be authoritarian and
prisoners to be submissive.
● Scripts influenced the way guards degraded the prisoners by
making them do push-ups and removing privacy.
● Parallels abuse used by guards in Abu Ghraib prison
1971 stanford experiment
213
our evaluation of a person, an idea,
or an object.
● Can be positive or negative.
● Influenced by external forces and
internal factors that we control
attitude
214
feelings
affective component
215
the effect of the
attitude on behavior
behavioral component
216
belief and
knowledge
cognitive component
217
psychological discomfort arising
from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors,
or cognitions
cognitive dissonance
218
To reduce cognitive dissonance, individuals can:
● Change their behavior - quitting smoking.
● Change their belief through rationalization or
denial - such as discounting the evidence that
smoking is harmful.
● Add a new cognition – “Smoking suppresses
appetite so I don’t become overweight, which is
good for my health
Later research found:
● Only conflicting cognitions that threaten positive
self-image cause dissonance.
● Dissonance can also cause physiological arousal
and activate brain regions involved in emotions and
cognitive functioning
219
suggests that we value goals
and achievements that we put a lot of effort into
● Justification of effort has a distinct effect on a
person liking a group.
● A difficult initiation into a group influences us to like
the group more.
justification effort
220
process of changing our attitudes toward something based on some kind of
communication.
persuasion
221
Central Route
● Logic driven.
● Uses data and facts.
● Direct route to persuasion focusing on the quality of
information.
● Works best when audience is analytical and willing
to engage in processing of the information
.
Peripheral Route
● Indirect route.
● Uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the
message.
● Uses characteristics such as positive emotion or
celebrity endorsement.
● Results in less permanent attitude change.
elaboration likelihood model
222
persuader gets a person to agree to a small favor, only to
later request a larger favor
foot in the door technique
223
the change in a person’s behavior to
go along with the group, even if he does not agree
with the group
conformity
224
These line segments illustrate the judgment task in
Asch’s conformity study.
Confederate: a person who is aware of the
experiment and works for the researcher
Conformity: the change in the person's behavior to
go along with the group
asch's experiment
225
the influence of the group
majority on an individual’s judgement.
What makes a person more likely to conform?
● The size of the majority
● The presence of another dissenter
● The public or private nature of the
responses
Voting for government officials in the United
States is private to reduce the pressure of
conformity.
asch effect
226
people conform to the group norm to fit in, to feel good, and to
be accepted by the group
normative social influence
227
people conform because they believe the group is
competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or situation is
ambiguous.
informational social influence
228
the change of an individual’s
behavior to comply with a demand by an
authority figure.
The Milgram experiment showed the surprising
degree to which people obey authority.
● Participants were told to shock “learners”
(confederate) for giving a wrong answer to
test items.
● Participants believed they were giving the
learners shocks, which increased all the
way up to 450 volts.
● Two out of three (65%) participants
continued to administer shocks to an
unresponsive learner.
obedience
229
the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the
group consensus.
● Groups often take action that individuals would not perform outside the group setting
because groups make more extreme decisions that individuals do.
● Members are less likely to express diverse opinions which can lead to faulty decision
making
groupthink
230
The strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group.
● Does your opinion change if you find someone attractive, but you friends do not agree?
group polarization
231
Occurs when an individual performs better when an audience is
watching than when the individual performs the behavior alone.
● Usually occurs when people are performing a task for which they are skilled or an easy
task.
● However, when people are nervous or less skilled, an audience may hinder rather than
help
social facilitation
232
The exertion of less effort by a person working together with a group.
● Occurs when individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group.
● Group performance declines on easy tasks.
● However, when a task is difficult, people feel more motivated and believe that their
group needs their input to do well on a challenging project.
social loafing
233
a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one’s
membership in a particular social group
prejudice
234
a specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their
membership in a group
stereotype
235
discrimination
a negative action toward an individual as a result of one’s membership in
a particular group
Why do prejudice and discrimination exist?
Social learning.
Conformity to social norms.
Dual Attitudes Model:
● Explicit – conscious and controllable.
● Implicit – Unconscious and uncontrollable.
236
Tendency to seek out information that supports our stereotypes and ignore information that is
inconsistent with our stereotypes.
confirmation bias
237
An expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it
true.
*Stereotypes → expectations about stereotype → treat person according to our expectations
→ influences person to act according to stereotypic expectations → confirms our stereotypic
beliefs
self fulfilling prophecy
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n-groups – a group that we identify with or see ourselves
as belonging to.
Out-groups – a group that we view as fundamentally
different from us.
In-group bias – prejudice and discrimination because the
out-group is perceived as different and is less preferred
than our in-group.
● We want to feel good and protect our in-groups.
Scapegoating – the act of blaming an out-group when the
in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from
obtaining a goal.
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Aggression – seeking to cause harm or pain to another person.
Hostile aggression – motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain.
E.g., a bar fight.
Instrumental aggression – motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve
intent to cause pain.
E.g., communication that impairs the social standing of another person.
Frustration Aggression Theory: When humans are prevented from achieving an important
goal, they become frustrated and aggressive.
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Evolutionary theory: aggression serves an
evolutionary function.
Men are more likely to show aggression -
likely serves to display dominance over other
males.
● To protect a mate.
● To perpetuate the male’s genes.
Human males and nonhuman male primates
endeavor to gain and display dominance
over other males, as demonstrated in the
behavior of these monkeys
evolutionary theory of aggression
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Bullying – repeated negative treatment of another person over time.
● The attempt to inflict harm, injury, or humiliation.
● Can include physical or verbal attacks.
● Can also be psychological.
Gender differences:
● Boys – tend to engage in direct, physical aggression.
● Girls – tend to engage in indirect, social forms of aggression (e.g.,
spreading rumors, ignoring, or socially isolating others)
Effects on the Victim:
● Decreased mental health including anxiety and depression.
● May underperform in school work.
Cyberbullying – repeated behavior that is intended to cause
psychological or emotional harm to another person.
● More common in girls (usually in those that have been victims of
cyberbullying themselves).
The Bystander Effect
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Kitty Genovese (1964)
Attacked and killed with a knife outside her apartment building.
Residents in the apartment building heard her scream for help numerous times but did
nothing.
Latane & Darley
Bystander Effect – phenomenon in which a witness/bystander does not volunteer to help a
victim or person in distress.
Based on the social situation, not personality variables.
Diffusion of responsibility – tendency for no one in a group to help because the
responsibility to help is spread throughout the group.
bystander effect
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Prosocial behavior – voluntary behavior
with the intent to help other people
Altruism – people’s desire to help others
even if the costs outweigh the benefits of
helping.
Theories of motivation to help
a. Empathy
b. Feeling good about oneself as a
consequence of action
c. Receiving benefits
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What influences who we become friends with and
form romantic relationships with?
Proximity: the people with whom you have the most
contact.
Similarity: people who are similar to us in
background, attitudes, and lifestyle.
Homophily: the tendency for people to form social
networks with others who are similar.
Reciprocity: the give and take in a relationship and
expect benefits in return.
Self Disclosure: sharing personal information.
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Women:
● Physical – large eyes, high cheekbones, a narrow jaw line, a slender build, and a lower
waist-to-hip ratio.
● Social traits – warmth, affection, and social skills
Men:
● Physical - tall, having broad shoulders, and a narrow waist.
● Social traits – achievement, leadership qualities, and job skills.
Matching Hypothesis – people tend to pick someone they view as their equal in physical
attractiveness and social desirability.
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.Intimacy – sharing of details and intimate thoughts and emotions.
2.Passion – physical attraction.
3.Commitment – standing by the person.
sternberg triangular theory of love
247
Social exchange theory – Acting like naïve economists, people may keep track of the costs
and benefits of forming and maintaining a relationship
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