1
Q
What is the definition of Memory?
A
The capacity to retain and retrieve information.
Memory involves: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
2
Q
What are the three processes involved in Memory?
A
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
These processes are essential for retaining and accessing information.
3
Q
What does Recall refer to in memory?
A
Retrieving information previously learned without cues.
Example: Essay question, fill-in-the-blank.
4
Q
What is the definition of Recognition in memory?
A
Identifying previously encountered information.
Example: Multiple choice.
5
Q
What is Relearning?
A
Measuring how much effort/time is saved when learning material again.
Shows that memory existed even if recall failed.
6
Q
What does the Information Processing Model compare memory to?
A
A computer.
Input → Encode → Store → Retrieve.
7
Q
What is the Levels of Processing theory?
A
The depth at which information is processed determines how well it is remembered.
Shallow processing leads to poor retention, while deep processing leads to better retention.
8
Q
What is the duration of Sensory Memory?
A
1–2 seconds.
Acts as a holding bin and determines what moves forward.
9
Q
What is the Magic Number in Short-Term Memory?
A
7 ± 2.
Modern research suggests closer to 4 items.
10
Q
What is Chunking?
A
Grouping items into meaningful units.
Example: 149217761812 → 1492, 1776, 1812.
11
Q
What are the two types of Explicit (Declarative) Memory?
A
- Semantic Memory
- Episodic Memory
Semantic: Facts; Episodic: Personal experiences.
12
Q
What is the Serial Position Effect?
A
Better memory for beginning (Primacy Effect) and end (Recency Effect).
Poor memory for middle.
13
Q
What factors improve Memory?
A
- Frequency
- Distinctiveness
- Chunking
Repeated exposure and unusual information are remembered better.
14
Q
What is Maintenance Rehearsal?
A
Repeating information to keep it in STM.
It is temporary.
15
Q
What is Elaborative Rehearsal?
A
Connecting new info to meaning.
Stronger LTM storage.
16
Q
What is the Dual Coding Theory?
A
Memory improves when information is stored both verbally and visually.
Either can trigger recall.
17
Q
What is Flashbulb Memory?
A
Vivid memories for emotional events.
Characteristics: feel accurate, main emotional aspects remembered, details can distort.
18
Q
What is Source Memory?
A
Remembering where info came from.
It can be affected by misattribution.
19
Q
What is Retrograde Amnesia?
A
Loss of memories before onset.
It affects past memories.
20
Q
What is Anterograde Amnesia?
A
Inability to form new memories after onset.
It affects future memory formation.
21
Q
What is the role of the Hippocampus in memory?
A
Forms new episodic memories.
Not required for retrieving old ones.
22
Q
What is Conditioning?
A
A type of learning involving associations between environmental stimuli and responses.
Two major types: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.
23
Q
What is the core idea of Classical Conditioning?
A
A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already produces a reflex.
Example: Bell → Salivation after pairing with food.
24
Q
What is the Law of Effect?
A
Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened.
Associated with Edward Thorndike.
25
What is **Positive Reinforcement**?
Adding something pleasant increases behavior.
## Footnote
Example: Giving praise increases studying.
26
What is the difference between **Negative Reinforcement** and **Punishment**?
Negative reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior.
## Footnote
Important distinction in behavior modification.
27
What is the **Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect**?
Behavior reinforced intermittently persists longer when reinforcement stops.
## Footnote
Example: Gambling addiction.
28
What is **Observational Learning**?
Learning by watching others.
## Footnote
Associated with Albert Bandura.
29
What is the **Framing Effect**?
How a problem is presented influences decision.
## Footnote
Example: 90% survival vs 10% mortality.
30
What is **Prospect Theory**?
People avoid losses more strongly than pursue gains.
## Footnote
Associated with Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky.
31
What is the definition of **Thought**?
An extension of perception and memory involving mental representations.
## Footnote
Thinking allows decision making, problem solving, reasoning, and categorizing.
32
What are **Schemas**?
Cognitive structures that help us organize and interpret information.
## Footnote
They guide perception and influence memory.
33
What is the difference between **Well-Defined Problems** and **Ill-Defined Problems**?
* Well-Defined: Clear solution and path
* Ill-Defined: No clear solution
## Footnote
Example: Algebra equation vs choosing a career.
34
Who are the two psychologists associated with **Prospect Theory**?
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky
## Footnote
Prospect Theory explains how people avoid losses more strongly than they pursue gains.
35
What does **Loss Aversion** refer to in Prospect Theory?
People avoid losses more strongly than pursue gains
## Footnote
This leads individuals to take risks to avoid losing previous investments.
36
Define an **Algorithm** in problem-solving strategies.
Step-by-step procedure guaranteeing solution
## Footnote
Algorithms are reliable but can be time-consuming.
37
What is **Hypothesis Testing**?
Make educated guess → test → revise
## Footnote
This strategy involves forming a hypothesis and adjusting based on results.
38
What is **Inductive Reasoning**?
Specific observations → general rule
## Footnote
Example: Sun rose every day → will rise tomorrow.
39
What is **Deductive Reasoning**?
General rule → specific conclusion
## Footnote
If premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
40
What is a **Syllogism**?
Premise 1: All A are B
Premise 2: C is A
Conclusion: C is B
## Footnote
A form of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two premises.
41
What is **Belief Bias**?
Accept conclusions based on believability, not logic
## Footnote
If an argument is logical but unbelievable, it may be rejected.
42
Define **Mental Set**.
Sticking to past solutions
## Footnote
Example: Using old math strategy when a new one is needed.
43
What is **Functional Fixedness**?
Seeing objects only for usual function
## Footnote
Example: Failing to use a shoe as a hammer substitute.
44
What is **Confirmation Bias**?
Seeking information that confirms beliefs
## Footnote
Example: Only reading articles supporting your political view.
45
What are **Unnecessary Constraints**?
Adding limits that don’t exist
## Footnote
Example: Assuming lines in a puzzle must stay within a box.
46
What does **Insight** refer to in problem-solving?
Sudden 'AHA' solution after impasse
## Footnote
This is often a moment of clarity in problem-solving.
47
What is the effect of **too many options** in decision making?
Conflict and indecision
## Footnote
Choice overload can reduce satisfaction and increase regret.
48
Define the **Compensatory Model** in decision making.
Strong attribute can compensate for weak one
## Footnote
Example: Car is expensive but very safe.
49
What is a **Noncompensatory Model**?
One flaw eliminates option
## Footnote
Example: If price is too high, the option is automatically rejected.
50
What is the **Additive Model** in decision making?
Rate each attribute → choose highest total score
## Footnote
This model involves evaluating multiple factors before making a decision.
51
What is the **Elimination by Aspects** strategy?
Gradually eliminate options that don’t meet criteria
## Footnote
This method helps narrow down choices based on specific attributes.
52
What are **Heuristics**?
Mental shortcuts used to simplify decisions
## Footnote
Heuristics are adaptive but can cause bias.
53
What is the **Availability Heuristic**?
Judge likelihood by ease of recall
## Footnote
Example: After seeing news about shark attacks, people overestimate the risk.
54
Define the **Representative Heuristic**.
Categorize based on similarity to prototype
## Footnote
Example: Assuming a quiet person is a librarian.
55
What is the **Gambler’s Fallacy**?
Belief that past random events influence future ones
## Footnote
Example: Coin landed heads 5 times → 'tails is due.'
56
What is the **Conjunction Fallacy**?
Two events cannot be more probable than one
## Footnote
Example: People think 'bank teller and feminist' is more likely than 'bank teller.'
57
What brain area is involved in **Judgment** and **Risk Evaluation**?
Prefrontal Cortex
## Footnote
Damage leads to riskier decisions and poor impulse control.
58
What is **Linguistic Relativity**?
Language influences thought
## Footnote
Associated with Benjamin Whorf, some support exists.
59
What is **Universal Grammar**?
Humans have a natural language mechanism
## Footnote
Associated with Noam Chomsky.
60
Define **Phonemes**.
Smallest sound units
## Footnote
Children lose ability to distinguish unused phonemes by 10–12 months.
61
What are **Morphemes**?
Smallest units of meaning
## Footnote
Example: Un-friend-ly.
62
What is **Semantics**?
Meaning of words
## Footnote
This aspect of language deals with how meaning is constructed.
63
What is **Syntax**?
Rules for combining words
## Footnote
Example: Children apply grammatical rules to nonsense words.
64
What is **Overregularization**?
Applying grammar rules to exceptions
## Footnote
Example: 'Goed' instead of 'went.'
65
What is **Fast-Mapping**?
Learn word after one exposure
## Footnote
This is a key aspect of language acquisition in children.
66
Define **Overextension**.
Calling all animals 'dog'
## Footnote
This is a common error in early language development.
67
What is **Underextension**?
Calling only family pet 'dog'
## Footnote
This reflects a limited understanding of categories in language.
68
What is **Receptive Language**?
Understanding language
## Footnote
This skill usually develops before expressive language.
69
What is **Expressive Language**?
Producing language
## Footnote
This skill involves the ability to communicate verbally.
70
What are the **stages of language development**?
* Crying
* Cooing
* Babbling
* First words
* Holophrases
* Telegraphic speech
## Footnote
These stages reflect the progression of language acquisition in children.
71
What is the **Behaviorist Theory** of language?
Language learned via imitation and reinforcement
## Footnote
A weakness is that children create novel sentences.
72
What is the **Nativist Theory** of language?
Innate biological mechanism for language learning
## Footnote
Suggests that children will learn language if exposed to it.
73
What is the **Interactionist Theory** of language?
Language develops from biology + environment
## Footnote
This theory emphasizes the role of social interaction in language acquisition.
74
What is the **Critical Period** in language acquisition?
A specific time window when language must be acquired
## Footnote
Genie’s case study illustrates the challenges of language learning after this period.
75
What does research show about **Bilingualism**?
* No cognitive deficits
* Often improved executive function
* Earlier acquisition → stronger brain integration
## Footnote
Bilingual individuals often have enhanced cognitive abilities.
76
What strengths do **Chimpanzees** have in language?
* Learn vocabulary
* Combine symbols
## Footnote
However, they have limitations in grammar and abstraction.
77
What limitations do **Dogs** have in language understanding?
Limited syntax understanding
## Footnote
Dogs can understand words but struggle with complex language structures.
78
What is the **Flynn Effect**?
IQ scores increased across generations
## Footnote
Likely due to education, nutrition, and cognitive stimulation.
79
What is the **Heritability Coefficient**?
Proportion of IQ differences explained by genetic variation
## Footnote
Current estimate is ≈ 50%, but this does not mean 50% of intelligence is genetic.
80
What is **Reaction Range**?
Genes set limits; environment determines where within range someone falls
## Footnote
A child with high genetic potential may not reach it in a deprived environment.
81
What is **Fluid Intelligence**?
Ability to solve novel problems and think abstractly
## Footnote
Linked to working memory and tends to decline with age.
82
What is **Crystallized Intelligence**?
Accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, and facts
## Footnote
Often increases with age, reflecting learned information.
83
What are the three types of intelligence in **Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory**?
* Analytical Intelligence
* Practical Intelligence
* Creative Intelligence
## Footnote
This theory emphasizes different aspects of intelligence beyond traditional measures.
84
What is **Emotional Intelligence**?
Ability to reason about emotions and use them effectively
## Footnote
Includes emotion regulation, impulse control, and social awareness.
85
What is the **Self-Fulfilling Prophecy**?
Expectations influence behavior, making outcome more likely
## Footnote
This concept highlights the impact of beliefs on performance.
86
What is **Stereotype Threat**?
Anxiety about confirming stereotypes harms performance
## Footnote
Example: Women reminded of gender before math test perform worse.
87
What did the **Rosenthal & Jacobson Study** demonstrate?
Teacher expectations influence student outcomes
## Footnote
Students labeled as 'intellectual bloomers' showed greater gains.
88
What are the **key domains of Adaptive Functioning**?
* Conceptual Skills
* Social Skills
* Practical Skills
## Footnote
These domains are essential for assessing intellectual disability.
89
What is **Down Syndrome** caused by?
Trisomy 21 (extra chromosome 21)
## Footnote
Common features include small stature and low muscle tone.
90
What are the characteristics of **Giftedness**?
* IQ > 130
* Ahead of time learning
* Intense focus
## Footnote
Gifted individuals often show early mastery of concepts.
91
What is the **Terman’s Study** associated with?
Longitudinal study of gifted children
## Footnote
Findings indicated that gifted children are generally healthy and socially adjusted.
92
What is the **major finding of the Flynn Effect**?
IQ scores have increased across generations
## Footnote
This trend is likely due to improved education and cognitive stimulation.
93
What is the **definition of Intelligence**?
Ability to use knowledge to reason, solve problems, and adapt to challenges
## Footnote
Modern views emphasize adaptive functioning beyond test performance.
94
What is the **Germinal Phase** in prenatal development?
Conception – 2 Weeks
## Footnote
The zygote divides rapidly and implants in the uterus.
95
What occurs during the **Embryonic Stage**?
Major organs and body structures begin to form
## Footnote
This stage is critical for development and serious birth defects can occur.
96
What is the **Fetal Stage**?
8 Weeks – Birth
## Footnote
Growth and maturation of previously formed structures occur.
97
What is **Myelination**?
Process where nerve fibers become coated with a fatty sheath
## Footnote
This process speeds neural communication and begins prenatally.
98
Define **Teratogens**.
Environmental agents that damage the developing embryo or fetus
## Footnote
Factors influencing teratogen effects include dose, genetics, and age of fetus.
99
What are the effects of **Smoking** during pregnancy?
* Low birth weight
* Increased stillbirth risk
* SIDS
## Footnote
Smoking can lead to significant developmental issues.
100
What are possible outcomes of **Marijuana** use during pregnancy?
* Lower visual-motor performance
* Reduced attention
* Increased behavioral problems
## Footnote
Marijuana can negatively impact fetal development.
101
What are the effects of **Cocaine** on fetal development?
* Premature birth
* Low birth weight
* Withdrawal symptoms
## Footnote
Cocaine use during pregnancy can lead to serious health issues for the infant.
102
What are symptoms of **Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)**?
* Small eye openings
* Flat midface
* Growth deficits
## Footnote
FASD is a leading preventable cause of intellectual disability.
103
What does the **Cephalocaudal Principle** describe?
Development occurs from head to feet
## Footnote
Example: Babies control their head and neck before their legs.
104
What does the **Proximodistal Principle** describe?
Development occurs from the center of the body outward
## Footnote
Example: Children control their arms before their fingers.
105
What are the characteristics of **newborn vision**?
* Poor focusing ability
* Limited color discrimination
* Visual acuity around 20/200 to 20/400
## Footnote
Newborns have limited visual capabilities.
106
What is the **hearing ability** of newborns?
Recognize their mother’s voice
## Footnote
Hearing develops during pregnancy, and fetuses can hear sounds around 6 months in utero.
107
What do infants typically prefer in terms of **taste**?
Sweet tastes
## Footnote
Taste and smell are present at birth.
108
What is the **Proximodistal Principle** in development?
Development occurs from the center of the body outward
## Footnote
Example: Children control arms before fingers.
109
List the characteristics of **newborn vision**.
* Poor focusing ability
* Limited color discrimination
* Visual acuity around 20/200 to 20/400
* Preference for human faces
## Footnote
Newborn vision is limited.
110
When does **hearing** develop in infants?
During pregnancy
## Footnote
Fetuses can hear sounds around 6 months in utero.
111
What are the **inborn automatic responses** to specific stimuli called?
Reflexes
## Footnote
Examples include rooting reflex and sucking reflex.
112
What is the purpose of the **Rooting Reflex**?
Helps the infant find food
## Footnote
Occurs when the infant’s cheek is touched.
113
What are the **predictable milestones** in motor development?
* Rolling over
* Crawling
* Walking
## Footnote
Environmental factors can accelerate or delay milestone timing.
114
Define **temperament**.
A person’s inborn emotional and behavioral tendencies
## Footnote
Thomas and Chess identified three main infant temperament types.
115
What are the three main types of **infant temperament** identified by Thomas and Chess?
* Difficult (10%)
* Slow-to-Warm (15%)
* Easy (40%)
## Footnote
About 35% show mixed characteristics.
116
What does **Goodness of Fit** refer to?
The compatibility between a child’s temperament and the parenting environment
## Footnote
A good match leads to healthy development.
117
What is **attachment**?
A strong emotional bond between an infant and caregiver
## Footnote
Studied using Ainsworth’s Strange Situation experiment.
118
What is **Stranger Anxiety**?
Fear of unfamiliar people
## Footnote
Typically appears around 6–7 months.
119
What are the types of **attachment** identified in infants?
* Secure Attachment (~60%)
* Insecure Avoidant Attachment (~20%)
* Insecure Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment (~15%)
* Disorganized Attachment (~5%)
## Footnote
Each type has distinct characteristics and implications for emotional development.
120
What did the **Harlow Monkey Experiments** demonstrate?
Emotional comfort is a basic need
## Footnote
Monkeys preferred the cloth mother over the wire mother.
121
What are the characteristics of **Authoritarian parenting**?
* Strict rules
* High control
* Low warmth
* Little explanation
## Footnote
Child outcomes include moodiness and less social skills.
122
What defines **Authoritative parenting**?
* Firm but supportive
* Clear rules
* Explanations for decisions
## Footnote
Considered the most effective parenting style.
123
What is **Piaget’s Schema**?
A mental framework used to organize knowledge and interpret experiences
## Footnote
Important for understanding cognitive development.
124
What is **Assimilation** in Piaget's theory?
Incorporating new information into existing schemas
## Footnote
Example: A child calls every four-legged animal a dog.
125
What is the **Sensorimotor Stage** in Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
0–2 Years; infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions
## Footnote
Major achievement: Object Permanence.
126
What is **Adolescent Egocentrism**?
The belief that everyone is constantly watching and judging you
## Footnote
Proposed by David Elkind.
127
What is the **Yerkes-Dodson Law**?
Performance is best at moderate levels of arousal
## Footnote
Low arousal leads to boredom; high arousal leads to anxiety.
128
What are the **six basic emotions** recognized universally?
* Happiness
* Sadness
* Anger
* Fear
* Surprise
* Disgust
## Footnote
Some research adds contempt.
129
What is the **James-Lange Theory** of emotion?
Emotion = perception of physiological response
## Footnote
Example: "I am afraid because my heart is racing."
130
What does the **hypothalamus** control?
Hunger and satiety
## Footnote
Lateral hypothalamus turns hunger ON; ventromedial hypothalamus turns hunger OFF.
131
What is **Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs**?
People are motivated to satisfy needs in order
## Footnote
Levels include physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
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