Qualitative 3- Data Collection

Question 1

What influence the format of the questions in an interview?

Answer 1

• They type of research method that will be used (quantitative or qualitative)

Question 2

What do quantitative interviews consist of?

Answer 2

• Pre-planned list of questions will be devised which will mainly consist of closed questions
• Structured questionnaire
• Little opportunity for the participant to provide additional information or explanation to support their response.
• Brief and could be conducted on the phone

Question 3

What do qualitative interviews consist of?

Answer 3

• Particularly used in phenomenology and grounded theory

- Uses a semi-structured or unstructured interview schedule

Question 4

How to develop an interview schedule or topic guide

Answer 4

• Consideration of what it is they want to know.
• Easiest to generate questions for an interview is mind-mapping the topics
• Question should be brief and simple
• Qualitative questions should involve open question to trigger discussions should also include follow-up questions
• The opening question should be broad e.g “tell me about”
• Important to not end with a sensitive question when the study is emotional- if there is any issues they wish to raise.
• Because the open questions are not exactly formatted to allow the researcher to be flexible during the interview. However, this does make it problematic to acquire ethics committee approval for their study.

Question 5

How to conduct an interview

Answer 5

• In qualitative studies the interview begins with a broad opening questions
• The researcher may not follow the order of the questions as they appear on the topic guide- so it becomes more of a conversation
• The researcher needs to vigilant throughout the interview to make sure all the questions are answered in the interview.
• The flexibility of semi-structured interview enables the participant to retain a level of control over the discussion.
• Probing questions enables the questionnaire to explore issues in greater depth- disadvantages: might disrupt the participant, they may feel like they are being interrogated; might narrow the focus.

Question 6

What are the factors to consider when conducting interviews?

Answer 6

• Face to face interviews: should be carried out in a quiet, private, comfortable location where the participant feel safe and at ease. Refreshments can be offered if appropriate.
• Interviews are normally audio-recorded to allow data analysis and transcription. It is important that the participants have consented for this and also to reassure participants that they do not have to answer all the questions. They should also be reassured that any comments will be anonymised and names will be replaced with code.
• Important to have that level of trust with the participant. The researcher must therefore find a way of establishing a good rapport and being responsive to the participants account e.g: maintaining eye contact.
• The researcher needs to decide whether they will be taking notes, however can be distracting to both parties. But also it might be necessary if the participants have declined any audio.
• Important to thank the participant after the interview
• May be relevant to provide information, usually in the form of debriefing sheet or identifying potential sources of support.
• Any information that the participant has shared after the interview can only be used in the study if they have granted permission.
• Support should also be in place for researchers after interviews
• Researchers should reflect on the interview once its done.

Question 7

Telephone interviews and interviews via the internet

Answer 7

• The researcher and participant can obviously not see each other
• Highly developed listening skills are needed
• Participants might be reluctant to discuss difficult and sensitive subjects.
• Internet interviews can mimic face-to face interviews due to skype and facetime.

Question 8

What are some advantages and disadvantages of telephone interviews?

Answer 8

Advantages

• Participants may feel more comfortable
• Tends to be more focus and concise
• May be less disruptive to the participant.
• Less expensive to conduct.
• Avoid lone worker issues arising.

Disadvantages

• May feel less comfortable revealing information than during a face to face interviews.
• The concise nature can mean that issues are not explored in depth.
• Both parties can speak at the same time.
• May not be speaking to the right person.
• Non-verbal cues can’t be taken into account.

Question 9

Who should conduct the interview?

Answer 9

• Could be the lead researcher, member of the research.
• May be known or unknown to the participant
• If more than one is involved in the interview the team need address how consistency of each interview will occur.

Question 10

What do observations include?

Answer 10

• Enables the researcher to understand how people behave in a particular way and how they interact with others
• Normally associated with ethnography, grounded theory or surveys
• Advantage: it facilitates the direct collection of data regarding behaviours, interactions and events occurring in a natural setting.
• First-hand account is generated
• Can be time consuming

Question 11

What are the different approaches to observations?

Answer 11

• Observations can be undertaken covertly and overtly, using participants or non-participants classified.
• Can also take a structured (quantitative) or semi-structured (qualitative) approach.
• Overt observations are when the participants are fully aware that they are being observed
• Covert observations are when participants do not know they are being observed
• Another strategy is when a researcher joins the group in order to carry our covert observations.
• Concerns about covert observations have been raised and is now difficult to acquire the necessary research governance approvals for observations using this approach

Question 12

Who should carry out the observations?

Answer 12

• Could be the lead researcher, member of the research.
• May be known or unknown to the participant
• The observer who has an understanding of the language and practises of the participants have some leverage and they will take less time to adapt into the group.

Question 13

What are the key issues that are needed when observing?

Answer 13

• Key issues: what will be observed, the tools to be used, the time frame and the methods of data collection.

Question 14

How can observed data be recorded?

Answer 14

• Hand-held electronics

- Audio recorders can allow the researchers to pick up things at a later date.

Question 15

Factors to consider when carrying out observations?

Answer 15

• The observer should have minimal effect on the events
• Participants reactivity: behaviour alteration when the participants know the presence of an observer.
• Covert observations minimise participant reactivity as they do not know they are being observed and therefore there is no shift in behaviour.
• However covert observations come with a range of ethical problems and is deemed unacceptable.
• Also, to minimise participant reactivity observers should not always be observing.
• Observer should maintain a discreet distance.
• Can be time-consuming
• Should try to minimise any interactions.

Question 16

What does focus groups include?

Answer 16

• Being a group interview and the intention is that participants not only respond to the question but also discuss issues raised by fellow participants.
• Usually used in ethnography and grounded theory
• To promote discussion the focus group should be small
• Time and cost effective
• Participants might find focus groups less intimidating than interviews.

Question 17

How to conduct a focus group

Answer 17

• A topic guide that consist of a key open question and probes
• The researcher leading the focus group needs to be skilled in ensuring each participant have their say.
• May be difficult is one participant is dominating and has a strong opinion. In this case the researcher should encourage other participants to join in.
• The researcher also needs to make sure that the discussion stays in the topic guide. This may be hard as a participant can raise a point that can unreveal a more important point for the topic. In this case, the researcher can be flexible in the discussion.

Question 18

What are the ethical issues associated with focus groups?

Answer 18

• May not be appropriate to collect data if the topic is sensitive
• Consent and confidentiality- pseudonyms rather their own name.
• Main ethical issue is that if a participant want to withdraw their contributions might still be used as subsequent responses can seem meaningless.
• Ground rules should be discussed beforehand.

Question 19

Who should conduct a focus group ?

Answer 19

• Could be the lead researcher, member of the research

- May be known or unknown to the participant

Question 20

What do diaries include?

Answer 20

• Is a tool that enables the participants to record information within a time-based framework.
• A primary source of evidence
• Enables researchers to collect data over a defined period of time about activities and behaviours
• Collecting data from participants about sensitive topics
• Diaries can be used in all types of methods- structured and unstructured

Question 21

What are the factors to consider then using diaries as a data collection?

Answer 21

• High attrition rates as participants fail to complete them over a period of time
• To promote engagement the researcher should make contact with the participant.
• Clear instructions

Question 22

What are the other methods of qualitative data collection?

Answer 22

Vignettes

• Describes a real or fictious event can be used to elicit participant responses about how they would respond in that situation
• Advantage: a hypothetical situation can make participants feel less intimidating.
• Might be too hypothetical for the study.

Q-sort
- Participants are given predetermined statement or individual cards then they are asked to sort or rank the cards from strongly agree and strongly disagree.

Art-based methods of data collection

• Draw, paint, take photographs that illustrates their thoughts, feelings and experience.
• Usually useful with younger children