Homonymous hemianopia
incongruous defects are associated with defects in what part
lesion of optic tract
lesion of optic radiation
lesion of occipital cortex
lesion of optic tract
Homonymous hemianopia
incongruous defects: lesion of optic tract
congruous defects: lesion of optic radiation or occipital cortex
macula sparing: lesion of occipital cortex
Osmotic demyelination syndrome (central pontine myelinolysis)
can occur due to over-correction of severe hyponatremia
what is the pathophysiology
Astrocyte apoptosis is the correct answer.
Cause: Rapid sodium correction
Primary injury: Astrocyte apoptosis
Mechanism: Osmolyte depletion → dehydration → cell death
Result: Pontine demyelination
Symptoms: Spastic quadriparesis + pseudobulbar palsy
Timeline: 2–6 days after rapid correction
What is astrocyte paligenosis, and does it play a role in osmotic demyelination syndrome (ODS)?
Astrocyte paligenosis is a stress-induced survival and regeneration program in which mature cells temporarily dedifferentiate, suppress apoptosis, and activate mTORC1-driven repair mechanisms.
Enables cells to avoid death under injury
Seen mainly in epithelial tissues (GI, pancreas), not typically in CNS glia
Involves:
Autophagy initiation
mTORC1 reactivation
Cellular re-entering of a regenerative state
Role in ODS?
❌ No.
Osmotic demyelination syndrome is driven by astrocyte apoptosis and oligodendrocyte injury, not by paligenosis.
Paligenosis is the opposite (a protective, non-apoptotic response).
high altitude pulmonary oedema pathophysiology
High altitude pulmonary oedema (HAPE): uneven hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction is a key pathophysiological step
High altitude cerebral oedema pathophysiology
cerebral vasodilation is the problem. Hypoxia → cerebral vasodilation → elevated cerebral blood volume
osteoporosis
“Genetic osteoclast defect → dense but brittle bones, marrow failure → pancytopenia, cranial nerve compression, fractures; X-ray: ‘bone within bone’; severe infantile form = HSCT.”
Cardiac arrest adrenaline dose
cardiac arrest: 1mg - 10ml 1:10,000 IV or 1ml of 1:1000 IV
anaphylaxis 0.5 mg- 0.5ml 1:1000 IM
the most common isolated organism in animal bites ?
The usual treatment is co-amoxiclav. f they patient is allergic what do you give
pasteurella multocida
Pasta»_space;»
doxycycline and metronidazole
which vaccines are contraindicated in HIV
Intranasal influenza
polio
BCG
Vaccines you can give in HIV CD>200
MMR
YELLOW FEVER
Varicella
safe vaccines in HIV
hep b / a
Men c / awy
Haemophilus influenza
Rabies
pneumococcus
Japanese encephalopathy
tetanus
The risk of HIV transmission depends on the nature of the exposure (e.g. needlestick, type of sexual contact, human bite) and Which other factor
the viral load of the source individual
is Post exposure prophylaxis needed if somebody has had human bites with HIV
Not needed unless there is blood
post exposure prophylaxis in hiv and how long does it last ?
tenofovir disoproxil/emtricitabine (Truvada®) + raltegravir ASAP
4 WEEKS
By what % does POP reduces HIV transmission and when do you complete serological testing after completing course
80%
after 12 weeks
meningitis organism gram stain
S. pneumoniae is a gram positive diplococci/chain
E. coli is a gram negative bacilli
H. influenzae is a gram negative coccobacilli
L. monocytogenes is a gram positive rod
N meningitis gram negative diplococci
