reading 5

Question 1

4 main electoral systems used in elections for legislatures

Answer 1

1. plurality systems (= stable majority govs BUT trouble translating votes into equal shares of seats)
2. proportional representation (= good representation of votes BUT potentially unstable coalition govs)
3. majority systems
4. mixed systems

Question 2

functions/role of elections

Answer 2

1. translating preferences voter
2. choosing leaders
3. transparency (parties/candidates have to explain/defend their goals and records)
4. legitimation (system of gov. + those in power)
5. encourage debate and public education

Question 3

3 major structural challenges with elections

Answer 3

1. elections can cause tensions and stresses+ heighten the chances for political, economic, social and ethnic conflict
2. promoting electoral integrity + countering electoral fraud
3. how can we make all votes count equally? -> we can’t (every electoral system is mathematically unbalanced, because no electoral formula translates the share of votes won by a party into exactly the same percentage share of seats in the legislature)

Question 4

(how to rig an election)
7

Answer 4

1. invisible rigging (manipulating district boundaries)
2. buying minds and hearts
3. divide and rule (obliging parties and candidates to explain their goals and defend their records)
4. hacking elections (providing legitimacy to the system of gov.. and to the actions of those in power)
5. ballot stuffing (adding fake votes or letting people vote multiple times)
6. judicial invalidation (invalidating results through politically controlled courts or judges)
7. Potemkin elections (duping electoral and international community by offering the illusion of electoral choices)

Question 5

(Potemkin elections)

Answer 5

duping the domestic and international community by offering the illusion of electoral choice

Question 6

table 14.1 page 340

Answer 6

LOOK AT IT

Question 7

plurality systems

two types

Answer 7

Single-Member Plurality (SMP) / first-past-the-post, winner-take-all)

• districts are each represented by a single member of the legislature
• e.g. India, US, Nigeria, Pakistan, UK, Canada, Malaysia
• advantage = simplicity + produces a single district representative
• disadvantage = unbalanced results (parties with support concentrated in blocks are overrepresented over parties with voters spread across districts)

Single Non-Transferable Vote (SNTV)

• every district has multiple members, voters can choose only one candidate running in that district
• much rarer, only in Afghanistan, Kuwait, Vanuatu

Question 8

plurality vs majority

Answer 8

plurality = more than anyone else
majority = more than 50%

Question 9

proportional representation (PR)

two variations

Answer 9

= most common in the world
most systems have a treshold (minimum % of votes required) to protect from party fragmentation (too much small parties = hard to formate a stable gov)

*list system**

• most common
• has several forms, e.g. preference voting (open lists)
• districts are represented by multiple members, each of the parties publishes a candidate list, voters choose among the parties running, number of votes won by the party determines how many chairs for each party
• e.g. Belgium, Spain, South Africa, Turkey, most of Europe and Latin America

single transferrable vote (STV)

• only in Malta and Ireland
• voters rank the candidates running in their district, when a candidate reaches a certain quota of votes, they are elected, their surplus first preferences are distributed to other candidates according to second preferences -> continues until al spots are taken
• allows votes to be cast for individual candidates

Question 10

Majority systems

Answer 10

winning candidate must earn majority of votes
- demo. argument: no candidate should be elected to office without proving themselves acceptable to most voters

Two-round system / runoff
proces = usually two-round election where candidates must pass the 50% mark, otherwise the 2 top candidates compete again

• once common in Europe, now only in France and its ex-colonies

Alternative vote (AV)
only in Australia and Papa New Guinea (+ other countries for other types of elections)

• voters rank all candidates,
• if one candidate wins with a majority of first-preference votes, they are elected
• if no-one wins a majority, the last-placed candidate is elminated and their votes reassigned
• proces continues until one candidate has a majority

Question 11

Mixed systems

Answer 11

= often mix of SMP and PR

parallel voting / mixed member majority (MMM)

• e.g. Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Venezuela
• 2 elections: one for local district, one for larger region, both get seats

mixed member proportional (MMP) / compensatory PR

• unequal representation that is possible in SMP is compensated by topping up seats to more represent the proportional outcome overall
• e.g. Germany: two votes on one ballot, one for districts (SMP), one party list PR for Germany’s 16 states
• ideal is that each party wins the same proportion of votes, SMP seats and PR seats, when this isn’t the case PR tops up the SMP seats

Question 12

executive elections

Answer 12

= election one-person presidency

Plurality systems

• simplest
• can fail to produce a convincing mandate (president that has less than 50% of votes has less credibility)
  *the more parties contesting, the bigger this problem

Majority systems / runoff/two-round system

• two-round: there is a second vote between the top 2 candidates if no one reached 50% in the first round
• problem: extends campaign season, has high costs, and is open to potentially dangerous tactical voting in the first round

!Indonesia, Nigeria, Kenya have this system + distribution requirements (candidates need to have regional and national support)

Question 13

The US procedure for choosing the president

Answer 13

is unique: uses an electoral college to choose the president

was intended to filter the voice of the people though an assembly of ‘wise men’

anachronistic system with clear dangers: winners of popular vote can loose Electoral College vote (or simply get a higher % win at the Electoral College vote than on the popular vote)

Question 14

term limits

Answer 14

presidents are more likely than legislatures to be subject to term limits

• benefit = won’t be able to exploit their unique position to win endless re-election
• problem = president that can’t be re-elected is no longer directly accountable to the voters

Question 15

referendums and initiatives

are they good for democracy?

Answer 15

voters become decision-makers: they vote on focused issues that usually result directly in forming policy

advantages referenda =
- channel to hear from voters directly
- improve better understanding of the issues at stake and increase confidence in political abilities of the people
- can inform politicians about voter opinions that may have gone unnoticed
- can provide a safety valve, allowing a gov. to put an issue to the people when it’s unable to decide

problems referenda =

• expensive
• issues may be too complex for yes/no vote
• can polarize the electorate
• voters must do research
• timing of vote can be critical
• too many referenda can reduce turnout
• voter judgements are often informed by wider considerations than the specific proposition on the ballot
• confusion about wording of the question

Question 16

referendum

Answer 16

= a vote of the electorate on a limited issue of public policy such as a constitutional amendment

can be:

• mandatory (= must be called on specified topics, e.g. constitutional amendments)
• optional
• constitutionally forbidden except some reserved subjects

outcomes can be:

• binding (e.g. constitutional reform)
• advisory (e.g. Brexit)

!Switzerland is the country that uses referenda the most

Question 17

initiatives

• two types

Answer 17

allow citizens to take the lead in making policy

referendum initiative

• allows a given number of citizens to initiate a popular vote on a given proposal
• nearly 40 countries, mainly European allow this
• in this way voters can propose a new law, an amendment etc.

agenda initiative

• functions as a petition to the legislature, obliging it to discuss a particular topic if the required number of signatures is reached
• introduced in European countries after WW1 + has been extended to other states

Question 18

elections in authoritarian regimes

Answer 18

results often not to be trusted: manipulation + corruption
-> sometimes elections are more like window-dressing

• co-option of the elite
• co-option of the opposition (allows some opposition members to be elected shares out some of the spoils of office and divides the opposition)
• generating information
• averting revolution
• engaging citizens
• ‘legitimacy’

Question 19

electoral authoritarianism

Answer 19

an arrangement in which a regime gives the appearance of being democratic, and offering voters choice, while concealing its authoritarian qualities

• manipulative strategies to keep winning elections (ban parties, harass journalists, intimidate votes, forge election results)
• goal to contain uncertainty of electoral outcomes + prevent uncertainties of regime change

e.g. Egypt: prevented voters from participating by not allowing them to register to vote -> administration Hosni Mubarak (1981-2011) always won
*2011 revolution -> changes in law arranged automatic universal voter registration, but electoral fraud returned and participation decreased

e.g. Iran: Supreme Leader is exempt, uses powers to undermine candidates, limits political parties + religious elite manipulates elections

e.g. Russia: more valuable to opposition challenges than many Western observers realize, Putin always wins:

• political parties must be formally registered (aka approved) = expensive
• access to media is controlled
• organization of public demonstrations is controlled
• workers in state-funded institutions are ordered to vote, preferable for the ruling party
• ballot stuffing + deliberate spoiling of ballots by vote counters

Question 20

hybrid regimes

Answer 20

elections to confirm the authority of the ruler

• explicit vote-rigging is avoided (still: e.g. unrealisticly high turnouts and winning rates, sometimes dead people vote?!)
• ‘big man politics’: leader dominates media to trumpet his successes
• in general hard to establish turnout rates, with independent data available turnout is about the same as in democracies (e.g. people want to express their (positive) evaluation of (eco.) performance)

e.g. Nigeria: more and more democratic (e.g. administration changes + defeat incumbent president)

e.g. Hussein 2002: won referendum with 100% turnout and 100% of the votes