Reconstructive Memory

Question 1

hi

Answer 1

hi

Question 2

Memory

Answer 2

Memory is a cognitive process that is used to encode, store, and retrieve information

Question 3

Schema

Answer 3

Mental representations that organize our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations

Question 4

The theory of reconstructive memory

Answer 4

Memory, rather than being the passive retrieval of information from the long-term storage, is an active process that involves the reconstruction of information. Essentially, one reconstructs the memory again.

Question 5

Loftus and Palmer (1974) aim

Answer 5

To see the extent to which memories can be altered by irrelevant external influences

Question 6

Loftus and Palmer (1974) procedure (experiment 1)

Answer 6

45 students were split into 5 groups and shown film recordings of traffic accidents (each participant was shown 7 films). The order in which the films were shown was different for each participant. Following each film, participants were given a questionnaire asking them to answer a series of questions about the accident. Most of the questions were distractors, but there was one critical question asked about the speed of the vehicles involved in the collision. The question was the same across groups: “about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other”, except the word “hit” may have been switched out depending on the group. Participants received a question with the word “smashed”, “collided”, “bumped”, “hit”, or “contacted” depending on their group.

Question 7

Loftus and Palmer (1974) results (experiment 1)

Answer 7

The mean speed estimate (mph) was:
- Smashed group: 40.5
- Collided group: 39.3
- Bumped group: 38.1
- Hit group: 34
- Contacted group: 31.8

Question 8

Loftus and Palmer (1974) conclusion (experiment 1)

Answer 8

There were two possible conclusions:
- Response bias: a participant might be uncertain whether to say 30 mph or 40 mph and a verb of higher intensity biases the response to a higher estimate. Memory of the event in this case does not change
- Memory change: a question causes a change in the participants memory representation of the accident. The verb “smashed” actually alters the memory so that the subject remembers the accident as having been more severe than it actually was

Question 9

Loftus and Palmer (1974) strengths and limitations (experiment 1)

Answer 9

Strengths:
- By changing the order in which participants were shown the films, they were able to counteract the order effect
Limitations:
- While the accuracy of the guess didn’t really matter, numerous previous studies had demonstrated that people in general are not very good at judging how fast a vehicle is traveling, which supports the response bias conclusion

Question 10

Loftus and Palmer (1974) procedure (experiment 2)

Answer 10

150 students were shown a film depicting a multi-car accident. Following the film, they were given a questionnaire that included a number of distracter questions and one critical question. The critical question separated participants into three groups:
- One in which it used the phrase “smashed into each other”
- One in which it used the phrase “hit each other”
- One which was not asked the question at all (a control group)
A week later, participants were given a questionnaire again without watching the film. It consisted of 10 questions, and the critical yes/no question was “did you see any broken glass?” There was no broken glass in the film.

Question 11

Loftus and Palmer (1974) results (experiment 2)

Answer 11

The probability of saying “yes” to the question about broken glass was 32% when the verb “smashed” was used, and only 14% when the word “hit” was used (which was almost the same as the 12% in the control group). The higher intensity verb led both to a higher speed estimate and a higher probability of recollecting an event that had never actually occurred.

Question 12

Loftus and Palmer (1974) conclusion (experiment 2)

Answer 12

The second explanation (memory change) for experiment 1 should be preferred.

Question 13

Loftus and Palmer (1974) strengths and limitations (experiment 2)

Answer 13

Strengths:
- measured for cause and effect
Limitations:
- potential ethical concerns of showing car crashes

Question 14

Loftus and Palmer (1974) relevance

Answer 14

provides support for the theory of reconstructive memory

Question 15

Loftus and Palmer extended conclusion

Answer 15

Memory for some complex event is based on two kinds of information: information obtained during the perception of the event and external post-event information. Overtime, information from these two sources is integrated in such a way that we are unable to tell them apart.

Question 16

Loftus and Palmer linkage to schema

Answer 16

The high-intensity verb “smashed” used in the leading question activates a schema for severe car accidents. Memory is then reconstructed through the lens of this schema.

Question 17

Payne et al (1994) aim

Answer 17

to test whether the misinformation effect exists and if so, whether or not there was a relationship between the misinformation effect and the length of the retention interval.

Question 18

Payne et al (1994) procedure

Answer 18

A meta-analysis of 44 research studies that used the “modified recognition test”, the same procedure that was used in McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985), when the misleading information was not an option on the test.
Also tested for a relationship between the misinformation effect and the length of the retention interval.

Question 19

Payne et al (1994) results

Answer 19

When all the studies were combined, the average recognition level in the misled condition was lower than the average recognition level in the control condition (71.7% vs. 75.8%). While small, it’s still statistically significant.
The longer the retention interval, the more likely the misinformation effect.

Question 20

Payne et al (1994) conclusion

Answer 20

The misinformation effect exists, however it’s not robust across all the studies.

Question 21

Payne et al (1994) strengths and limitations

Answer 21

Strengths:
- large sample size
Limitations:
- dependent on the quality of the studies used

Question 22

Payne et al (1994) relevance

Answer 22

analyzes the data from 44 research studies regarding the misinformation effect to see if it exists

Question 23

Payne et al (1994) and McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985) linkage

Answer 23

McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985) suggested an alternative explanation and claimed that the results of Loftus and Palmer (1974) were due to response bias. Their results supported their hypothesis, which meant that their study’s findings conflicted with Loftus and Palmer (1974). Payne et al (1994) did a meta-analysis that included McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985) and similar studies and came to a conclusion that supported Loftus and Palmer (1974)