RELATIONSHIPS Flashcards

Question

Explain attributions in self-disclosure

Answer 1

Individuals consider the motivations behind self-disclosure ^— someone who discloses to everyone is seen as less attractive than someone who reveals to fewer people

Answer 2

While revealing information is generally seen as improving relationships, breaking social norms or revealing information too early (TMI) can have the opposite reaction (lowering attraction)

Answer 3

Relationship between self-disclosure + relationship satisfaction is based on the many forms of self-disclosure ^— e.g. disclosing taste in music + disclosing inner fears and fantasies are VERY different - It is not self-disclosure that predicts relationship satisfaction, but the TYPE of self-disclosure

Answer 4

- Sprecher et al. (2013) - 156 undergrad students @ US uni paired into dyads ^— approx. 2/3 of dyads were female-female + 1/3 were male-female - each dyad of unacquainted individuals engaged in self-disclosure over Skype - RECIPROCAL CONDITION: dyad members took turns asking questions + disclosing - NON-RECIPROCAL CONDITION: one person asked questions in 1st interaction while other disclosed - The two then switched roles for second interaction (extended reciprocity)

Answer 5

- Sprecher et al. (2013) - RECIPROCAL CONDITION: individuals reported more liking, closeness, perceived similarity + enjoyment of interaction than other condition after 1st interaction - Difference remained after participants in NON-RECIPROCAL dyads switched disclosure roles during second interaction - Showed that turn-taking self-disclosure reciprocity is more likely to lead to positive interpersonal outcomes than extend reciprocity

Answer 6

- Kirchhoff & Davies (1962) - Romantic partners are chosen by using a serious of filters that narrow down the ‘field of availables’ from which we might eventually make our choice from the newly formed ‘field of desirables’ ^— these are made of from those who pass through each filter

Answer 7

1. Social demography 2. Similarity in attitudes 3. Complementarity

Answer 8

- We are more likely to come into contact w/ people who live nearby and people who share characteristics like social class, education level + economic status

Answer 9

- Due to social demography, we are more likely it come into contact with people with similar core values (e.g. attitudes, values + beliefs) ^— these people are seen as more attractive/compatible - these shared attitudes also help to encourage self-disclosure in the beginning

Answer 10

- We are attracted to those people who provide for our emotional needs ^— partners can have mutually beneficial differences - How well two people fit together as a couple + meet each other’s needs - OPPOSITES ATTRACT

Answer 11

- Kerchhoff + Davies (1962) - Longitudinal study on 94 dating couple @ Duke University in US ^— each partner in the couple completed two questionnaires assessing degree of which they shared attitudes + values & degree of need complementarity - 7 months after initial testing, couple completed further questionnaire assessing how close they felt to their partner compared to the beginning of the study

Answer 12

- In initial analysis, only similarity appeared to be related to partner closeness | THEN divided couples into short-term (<18 months) and long-timer (>18 months) - Short-term: Similarity in attitudes + values was most significant predictor of how close they felt to their partner - Long-term: Only complementarity was predictive of how close individuals were to partners

Answer 13

A theory of how relationships form + develop - assumes partners act out of self-interest in exchanging rewards + costs - Assumes relationships are guided by the MINIMAX principle - THIBAUT + KELLEY (1959) proposed relationships could be explained in terms of economics: satisfaction judged in terms of profit (perceives value of rewards minus the value of costs)

Answer 14

States that partners try to minimise losses and maximise gains

Answer 15

- Comparison Level - Comparison Level for Alternatives

Answer 16

- Our perception of what rewards we deserve in a relationship - a standard against which all our relationships are judged - This is the product of our experiences in other relationships together with our general views of what we might expect from this particular exchange - If profit exceeds CL, then the relationship is deemed worthwhile and the person is attractive - Someone who has previously had an unpleasant/unsatisfying relationship may have a very low CL + be perfectly happy in a relatively poor relationship - If perceived profits > CL for both individuals, there is more solidarity between them

Answer 17

- An individual considers if there may be a greater profit in a different relationship w/ different partner ^— weighs up potential increase in rewards form different partner, minus any costs from ending current relationship - A new relationship can take the place of the current one if it’s anticipated profit level is higher - Individual will be committed to current relationship if benefits & costs are greater than those perceived in an alt. relationship (or even having no relationship) - Relationships may become less stable is one (or both) of the partners has a low level of dependence on that relationship

Answer 18

- Sampling stage - Bargaining stage - Commitment stage - Institutionalisation stage

Answer 19

- involves exploring rewards + costs or relationships by experimenting in own relationships & observing others

Answer 20

- occurs at start of relationship where romantic partners negotiate around rewards and costs

Answer 21

- where relationships become more stable Costs reduce + rewards increase

Answer 22

- when partners become settled because norms of relationship are settled

Answer 23

- Kurdek + Schmitt (1986) - Investigated importance of social exchange factors in determining relationship quality in 185 couples ^— comprised 44 heterosexual married couples, 35 co-habiting heterosexual couples, 50 same-sex male couples _ 56 same-sex female couples - Each couple lived together + had no children living with them - Each couple completed a questionnaire without discussing their answers with each other

Answer 24

- Kurdek + Schmitt (1986) - For each of the 4 different types of couple, greater relationship satisfaction was associated with: ^— perception of many benefits of current relationship (CL) ^— seeing alternatives to the current relationship as less attractive (CLA) - these findings show that the factors that predict satisfaction in same-sex relationships are the same ones that predict satisfaction in heterosexual relationships

Answer 25

- Walster et al.(1978) suggests partners aim for fairness ^— feel most comfortable when rewards are roughly equal to costs

Answer 26

- Underbenefitted partner feels: anger + resentment -> ends relationship - Overbenefitted partner feels: discomfort, guilt, shame -> ends relationship

Answer 27

- The more perceived inequity, the stronger sense of dissatisfaction (there is predicted to be a strong positive correlation) - At the start of a relationship, it may feel natural to contribute more than what’s being received ^— but if that continues as relationship continues, dissatisfaction will set in

Answer 28

- Stafford and Canary (2006) - Interested in how equity and satisfaction predicted the use of maintenance strategies typically used in marriage - Asked 200+ married couples to complete measures of equity and relationship satisfaction - Additionally, each spouse was asked questions about their use of relationship maintenance strategies such as assurances (emphasising affections + commitment), sharing tasks (household responsibilities + chores) & positivity (communicating in an upbeat manner)

Answer 29

- Stafford + Canary (2006) - Revealed that satisfaction was highest for spouses who perceived their relationships to be equitable, followed by overbenefitted partners, then underbenefitted partners - Under benefitted husbands particularly reported lower levels of relationship maintenance strategies compared to equitable or overbenfitted husbands - Relationship between equity and marital happiness appeared to be complementary - Spouses who were treated equitably tended to be happier and do were more likely to engage in behaviours contributing to spouse’s sense of equity + happiness

Answer 30

- Behavioural - Cognitive

Answer 31

- Overbenefitted partner may increase costs - Underbenefitted partner may decrease costs

Answer 32

- Dissatisfied partner might revise their perceptions of rewards + costs so relationship feels more fair even if nothing changes - What was once perceived as a cost (e.g. abuse) can become accepted as the norm of the relationship

Answer 33

- Rusbult’s Investment Model (RIM) - A way of understanding why people remain in some romantic relationships but not others - A development of SET, considering how much has been invested in the current relationship, not just current satisfaction

Answer 34

The likelihood that an individual will persist with their current relationship - increased commitment = remain in a relationship

Answer 35

- Satisfaction - Alternatives - Investments

Answer 36

- Refers to the positive versus negative emotions experiences within a relationship - Influenced by the extent to which the other person fulfils the individual’s most important needs ^— e.g. a partner may feel satisfied to the degree that the other partner gratifies their domestic, companionate and sexual needs

Answer 37

- Quality of alternatives refers to the extent to which an individual’s most important needs might be better fulfilled outside the current relationship ^— perceiving that an attractive alternative might provide superior outcomes to those experiences in the current relationship might lead an individual towards that alternative and away from their current relationship - However, if alternatives are not present, an individual may persist with a relationship due to lack of better options - Attractive alternatives are not always other people ^— e.g. no relationship may be more attractive than the current one

Answer 38

- Intrinsic - Extrinsic

Answer 39

Things we put directly into the relationship (e.g. money, energy + self-disclosure)

Answer 40

Things brought into peoples’ lives as a result of the relationship (e.g. shared mortgage, house, children, shared memories)

Answer 41

- Duck (1982) - proposed a phase model of relationship breakdown ^— ending of a relationship is not a one-off | IT IS A PROCESS

Answer 42

- Intrapsychic phase - Dyadic phase - Social phase - Grave-dressing phase

Answer 43

- PHASE 1 - One partner admits to themselves that they are dissatisfied w/ the relationship ^— burdened by feeling of resentment + a sense of being under-benefited

Answer 44

- PHASE 2 - Individuals confront their partners + begin to discuss their feelings of discontentment + the future of the relationship - Feeling of guilt + anger are likely to surface as part of these discussions ^— may discover partner also has concerns - Couple may become away of the forces binding them together (e.g. children + other investments) + the costs that would be incurred - Relationship can be saved is both partners are motivated to resolve the issue (may seek couples therapy) - Or may involve others

Answer 45

- PHASE 3 - Privacy gone, dissatisfaction spills over to network of friends/family - Distress experienced by one/both partners is now made public ^— harder for partners to deny there is a problem with their relationship + harder for them to bring about reconciliation - Others may take sides, offer advice/support, or may help in mending disputes between 2 sides

Answer 46

- PHASE 4 - Left the relationship - Each partner must present themselves to others as trustworthy + loyal (to attract a new partner) - Striving to construct a representation of the failed relationship that doesn’t paint their contribution to it as unfavourable - May also strategically reinterpret their view of their partner ^— e.g. initially attracted to their ‘rebellious nature’ but now label that trait as irresponsible

Answer 47

Relationships that are formed + maintained using online communication platforms such as emails, social media, texting, chat rooms, etc…

Answer 48

- Reduced cues theory - Hyperpersonal model

Answer 49

- Sproull + Kiesler (1986) - SD DECREASES in virtual; relationships - Virtual relationships lack non-verbal cues (e.g. facial expressions, vocal tone, by language ^— this is relied on in face-to-face relationships - Leads to de-individuation ^— causes blunt + even aggressive communication + this results in a reluctance to self-disclose

Answer 50

In terms of virtual relationships, people online feel free from social norms and become disinhibited

Answer 51

- Walter (1996) - SD INCREASES in virtual relationships - Virtual relationships can develop very quickly as self-disclosure happens early (INTENSE + INTIMATE)

Answer 52

- Sender has greater control of what they’re disclose (selective self-presentation) + may be hyperhonest or hyper dishonest - Receiver’s feedback may reinforce sender’s selective self-presentation + prompt further self-disclosure - Anonymity = INCREASED self-disclosure

Answer 53

Barriers that limit opportunities for the less attractive shy, or less socially-skilled to form relationships in face-to-face encounters

Answer 54

- Due to relative anonymity of internet, gates are not initially evident + are less likely to stop potential relationships forming - Removing traditional gating features that dominate initial liking + relationship formation is that a person’s true self id more likely to be active in internet relationships than irl

Answer 55

An individual is attracted to another person (usually a celebrity), who is usually unaware of the existence of the person who has created the relationship

Answer 56

- Entertainment-social - Intense-personal - Borderline-pathological

Answer 57

- McCutcheon (2002) - Most people never go beyond admiring celebrities because of he celebrities’ entertainment/social value - Those who go much further than that + engage in celebrity worship are compensating for deficiencies in life ^— e.g. difficulty forming intimate relationships, low self-esteem or poor psychological functioning - Forming parasocial relationships allows them to achieve fulfilment they lack in everyday life - Someone who starts as entertainment-social may be triggered into a more intense level by a stressful life event

Answer 58

- Fans are attracted to a favourite celebrity + will watch, keep up with, read + learn about that celebrity for entertainment + gossip purposes ^— e.g. friends w/ interests in reality TV enjoy discussing drama between characters on Love Island ^— e.g. “Learning the life story of my favourite celebrity is a lot of fun@

Answer 59

Involves a deeper level of involvement and reflects intensive + compulsive feelings about the celebrity, akin to the obsessive tendencies of fans often referred to in the literature ^— e.g. Kylie Jenner fan might frequently comment on her social media posts + think they are soulmates ^— e.g. “I love to talk to others who admire my favourite celebrity”

Answer 60

Typified by empathy w/ the celebrity (as individuals at this level identify with the celebrities successes + failure - Also over identification with the celebrity + uncontrollable behaviours + fantasies about their lives ^— e.g. Christiano Ronaldo fan spend more money on signed football boots or be willing to commit illegal acts to see him ^— e.g. “If I walked through the door of my favourite celebrity’s house, they would be happy to see me”

Answer 61

- Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates an individual to focus attention on the celebrity to become absorbed in the celebrity’s existence and identify with them

Answer 62

- Like physiological addition ^— an individual needs to increase their ‘dose’ of involvement to gain satisfaction ^— may lead to more extreme behaviours + delusional thinking (i.e. borderline pathological)

Answer 63

- Bowlby’s attachment theory suggests early difficulties in attachment may lead to difficulties in forming successful relationships irl - Parasocial relationships may function similarly to ‘real life’ relationships in terms of attachment behaviours ^— relationships with TV personalities exhibit to some degree the three fundamental properties of adult attachment

Answer 64

- Proximity seeking - Secure base - Protest at disruption

Answer 65

- Individuals attempt to reduce the distance between themselves and their attachment figure ^— fans exhibit proximity-seeking behaviour w/ parasocial relationships - Research shown that people like to stay informed about their favourite celebrities - collecting trivia about them, rearranging schedules to see them on TV, attempting to contact through letters or in person

Answer 66

- Presence of attachment figure provides a sense of security for the individual (a ‘safe haven’) that allows them to explore the world - W/ parasocial relationships, where little/no chance of rejection from the attachment figure, the individual can create a secure base from which they can explore other relationships in a safe way

Answer 67

- Best marker of an attachment may be the presence of prolonged distress following separation/loss of an attachment figure ^— e.g. BBC axing Jeremy Clarkson from Top Gear in 2015 was met by raw emotion associated with the loss of an attachment figure ^— met with comments such as ‘I want to cry’ + ‘Top Gear gave my life purpose’

Answer 68

- Insecure-resistant - Insecure-avoidant

Answer 69

- MOST LIEKLY to form parasocial relationships ^— they want to have their unfulfilled needs met but w/out rejection, disappointment + criticism they associate with real relationships

Answer 70

- AVOID pain + rejection of any type of relationship (parasocial or social)

RELATIONSHIPS Flashcards

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