RELATIONSHIPS

Question 1

define evolution

Answer 1

each thing has a set of characteristics which is encoded by genes, the offspring receives this during reproduction
therefore the variation between organisms is the difference in genotypes

Question 2

3 main steps in evolution

Answer 2

to live to reproductive age
to mate successfully
to ensure offspring survival

Question 3

whats natural selection

Answer 3

the ability to survive in a specific environment

Question 4

whats sexual selection

Answer 4

the ability to attract and reproduce, the attributes and behaviours that inc reproductivity are passed onto future generations

Question 5

whats anisogamy

Answer 5

Anisogamy refers to the differences between male and female sex cells (gametes).

Male gametes (sperm) are small, mobile, and produced continuously in large quantities throughout a man’s reproductive life. This makes them “cheap” from a biological perspective.

Female gametes (eggs), however, are larger, static, and produced in limited numbers—typically one per menstrual cycle, and only during a limited reproductive window in her life. This makes them “expensive” in terms of energy and biological investment.

Question 6

whats inter sexual selection and whats the female preference

Answer 6

Inter-sexual selection refers to the process where one sex (usually females) selects mates from the opposite sex based on desirable traits. This is often called the female choice strategy.

Because females invest more biologically in reproduction (e.g. pregnancy, limited number of eggs, child-rearing), they tend to be more selective.

They typically look for males with traits that indicate good genes, the ability to provide resources, or strong protection—this increases the chances of survival for their offspring.

Question 7

what is the male preference within inter sexual selection

Answer 7

reproductive success, they aim to reproduce a lot and usually go for a large hip to waist ratio which reflects ability to reproduce

Question 8

whats the impact of inter sexual selection

Answer 8

females become more choosy as they want the best for their offspring ( sexy sons hypothesis )

Question 9

whats intra sexual selection

Answer 9

Intra-sexual selection refers to the competition between members of the same sex (usually males) for access to mates. This is often called the male competition strategy.

Because males produce many sperm and can father many offspring with little biological investment, they benefit from competing for access to as many fertile females as possible.

Question 10

what do males go for within intra sexual selection

Answer 10

quantity, they want to compete for female access as sperm is plentiful “ the winners “ pass on traits

Question 11

whats the impact of intra sexual selection

Answer 11

dimorphism, males have exaggerated characteristics to become attractive however a weakness of this is that it also attracts predators

Question 12

strength of evolutionary explanation

Answer 12

review of lonley hearts study found males go for young women and females go for professional and wealthy
supports as it reflects sex-specific mate preferences predicted by evolutionary theory:

Question 13

strength 2 of evolutionary explanation

Answer 13

a study was completed where students were i asked ‘ i find you attractive, would you go to bed w me’
0% women
75% males
supports f is choosy and males are more willing to engage in casual sex, which fits with the male strategy of maximising reproductive success.

Question 14

weakness of evolutionary explanation

Answer 14

buss claims sexual selection theory is too simplistic as it states different strategies used for different sexes

buss suggests the same strategy is used when looking for long term partners

SUGGESTS OVER SIMPLISTIC AND PROPOSES A MORE COMPLEX THEORY WHICH CONSIDERS CONTEXT

Question 15

weakness 2 of evolutionary theory

Answer 15

partner preferences have been influenced by changing social norms and culture
eg: contraception, changing workplace roles
partner preference no longer resource orientated
EE DOESN’T CONSIDER CULTURE BOTH, limited

Question 16

define physical attraction

Answer 16

assumes we seek to form relationships with most attractive

Question 17

whats the evolutionary explanation within physical attractiveness

Answer 17

attraction is result of sexual evolution, using attractions as a symbol of genetic fitness

Question 18

what was the study of evolutionary explanation within physical attractiveness

Answer 18

Shackleford: found people w symmetrical faces attractive. Baby face features eg: big eyes, small nose to represent caring feauture

Question 19

strength of evolutionary explanation within physical attractiveness

Answer 19

research support
found women w big eyes and large nose were rated as attracted across white, asian and hispanic
features consistent across cultures

Question 20

whats the halo effect within physical attractiveness

Answer 20

people who are seen as attractive are seen in a positive light

Dion found people who were kind sociable and successful were attractive when compared to others

Question 21

strength of halo effect

Answer 21

research support.
found attractive politically education and competent.
supports theory but raises the question of if we chose politics based of suitability or attractiveness

Question 22

whats the matching hypothesis

Answer 22

we look for partners that are on a similar level of attractiveness to what we think of ourselves

Question 23

strength of matching

Answer 23

feingold research support
meta analysed 17 studies of rl couples and found correlation between partners attractiveness, supports

Question 24

weakness of matching hypothesis

Answer 24

In Walster’s “Computer Dance” study, students were paired randomly by a computer and secretly judged by a panel on attractiveness.
during intervals and 4-6m later partners were asked if they wanted a second date and if they found partner attractive.
found higher appreciation of partners than themselves

Question 25

define self disclosure

Answer 25

revealing personal information and true self to partner, even dark secrets to become more intimate due to more disclosure

Question 26

whats the social penetration theory

Answer 26

Social Penetration Theory suggests that people gradually reveal their emotions and personal information to others over time. This happens through reciprocal sharing of thoughts and experiences. As people share more deeply, they develop a greater understanding of each other, and trust increases, helping relationships grow closer.

Question 27

who suggests the onion metaphor and what is it

Answer 27

altman and taylor self disclosure is a process of removing layers

Question 28

whats breadth and depth

Answer 28

Breadth is the range or variety of topics someone talks about at the start of a relationship. It covers superficial, low-risk information like hobbies or daily routines. Depth is how deep or personal the information shared is. It involves more intimate, meaningful details about feelings, beliefs, or values, which increases as trust builds.

Question 29

whats reciprocity within self disclosure

Answer 29

Shaver said that for a relationship to develop, there needs to be reciprocity—this means both people share information equally. If one person opens up, the other should too, creating a balance in self-disclosure. This helps build trust and intimacy in the relationship.

Question 30

whats depenetration

Answer 30

dissatisfied partners share less until disengaged

Question 31

strength of self disclosure

Answer 31

research support strong correlation between satisfication and sd, men and women who use sd and reciprocity were more committed. supports however only correlation

Question 32

strength 2 of self disclosure

Answer 32

in depth research . 57% homosexual men and women rely on sd as maintenance, couples w less communication are enc to use . supports and in depth

Question 33

weakness of self disclosure

Answer 33

cultural variations. people in us sd more than china and there is no difference in satisfaction. sd may be accurate in individualistic not collectivist

Question 34

weakness 2 self disclosure

Answer 34

contradicting research . sp claims sd is associated with higher satisfaction however when a relationship breaks, partners disclose more and often, but this doesn’t save the relationship. contradicts theory

Question 35

whats the filter theory

Answer 35

an explanation of attraction that states a series of factors that limit the range of desirables

Question 36

who compared attitudes between long term and short term relationships in student couples

Answer 36

kerchoff and davis

Question 37

1st filter- social demography

Answer 37

influence chance of meeting eg: age, location anyone too different gets filtered meaningful encounters w those physically close

Question 38

2nd filter- similarity

Answer 38

share basic beliefs for couples less than 18 months promotes communication and growth

Question 39

3rd filter- complimentary

Answer 39

similarity replaced, opposites attract, partner balances traits w opposite eg: one can cook, one cant

Question 40

strength of filter

Answer 40

research support, couples completed questionnaire on similarity of attitudes and complimentary of needs. complimentary of needs in lt and similarity in st, supports

Question 41

weakness of filter theory

Answer 41

The original findings of filter theory have not been consistently replicated in later studies. due to social changes, like online dating, and the assumption that couples over 18 months are more committed, which may not always be true today. 👉 This reduces the validity of the theory because it may no longer accurately explain how people form relationships in modern society.

Question 42

weakness 2 of filter

Answer 42

research contradict 2013( modern ) found lesbians in a long term relationship were more satisfied when equal in relationship eg; both can cook. similarity associated w lt in some

Question 43

weakness 3 of filter

Answer 43

actual similarity linked to brief interactions perceived more important some suggest perceive similarity as they grow more attracted to each-other. PS MAY BE AN EFFECT OF ATTRACTION NOT CAUSE this isnt predicted by filter theory

Question 44

whats the social exchange theory

Answer 44

suggests relationships can be explained through economics- an exch of goods THIABUT AND KELLEY 1959

Question 45

explain rewards and costs within social exchange

Answer 45

costs- rewards= satisfaction minimax theory profitable relationships continue benefits: friendship, emotion supp negative: time money arguing

Question 46

whats the first stage within social exchange

Answer 46

sampling - exploring rewards and costs

Question 47

whats the second stage within social exchange

Answer 47

bargaining - negotiating costs and rewards

Question 48

whats the third stage within social exchange

Answer 48

committment - relationship becomes stable due to costs decreasing and rewards increasing

Question 49

whats the fourth stage within social exchange

Answer 49

institutionalisation norms are established costs and rewards don’t fluctuate as relationship is locked in and extremely stable

Question 50

whats committment level?

Answer 50

a judgement of what level of rewards we deserve based on level of self esteem high se- high CL low- low CL

Question 51

whats CL alternative

Answer 51

cl alternative is where we analyse if being with another or breaking off our relationship would lead to a more rewarding situation THEREFORE WE STAY WITH PARTNERS IF WE TRULY BELIEVE NO OTHER SITUATION COULD BE MORE REWARDING

Question 52

one strength of social exchange theory

Answer 52

research support. interviewed homosexual and heterosexual couples ,they perceive they had rewards and few costs if committed. alternatives were also said to be unattractive. supports and findings are generalised to all types of couples

Question 53

one weakness within social exchange

Answer 53

studies into SET ignore equity, which suggests fairness over balance, therefore SET is limited and cant account for important equity research.

Question 54

weakness 2 within social exchange

Answer 54

SET claims we become dissatisfied if we perceive costs outweigh rewards. it has been argued that costs follow dissatisfaction. cant establish cause and effect as it is only a relationship, direction may be opposite

Question 55

weakness 3 within social exchange

Answer 55

costs and rewards hard to define as they may change over time due to social norms. CL and CLAlt are unclear as they do not state what leads to dissatisfaction. SET hard to test as we cant operationalise due to these issues.

Question 56

whats equity

Answer 56

equity is where people strive to achieve fairness over balance, through inputs and outputs

Question 57

equity is not…

Answer 57

EQUALITY the theory suggests its not the amount of rewards and costs but the ratio of the two

Question 58

whats inequity

Answer 58

if inequity is perceived, dissatisfaction will inc eg: one putting in more effort than another

Question 59

what do we do to resolve inequity

Answer 59

behavioural changes - more/ less effort cognitive changes - change demands

Question 60

strength of equity theory

Answer 60

research support. utne surveyed 118 married couples (16-45), relationship that were equitable were more satisfied . supports theory, high ext validity

Question 61

weakness of equity

Answer 61

research contradicts . equity doesn’t inc over time as theory suggests, they didn’t find a difference within ended and carried on relationships. SD more important . dec validity

Question 62

weakness 2 of equity

Answer 62

cultural differences . individualistic equitable however collectivist preferred over benefiting. doesnt apply universally, therefore is ethnocentric

Question 63

weakness 3 equity

Answer 63

individual differences . some people happy to contribute more and “ entitles “ like to over benefit. reduces validity as not universal and cant be applied to all ( equity theory suggested everyone desires equity )

Question 64

whats rusbults investment model

Answer 64

suggests committment depends on - satisfaction - alternatives - investment

Question 65

what does rusbults model look like

Answer 65

3 factors- com level- stay or leave

Question 66

whats an intrinsic investment

Answer 66

something we put into the relationship eg: time, money, effort

Question 67

whats an extrinsic investment

Answer 67

the shared things that may be lost if the relationship ends eg: memories, house, children

Question 68

whats a maintenance behaviour

Answer 68

communication behaviors used to ensure the continuation of valued relationships eg: forgiveness, promotion

Question 69

strength 1 of rusbults

Answer 69

rusbult asked students in heterosexual relstionships to complete questionnaire over 7 months and found committed = more satisfaction, lower investment and lower alternatives. supports 3 factors

Question 70

strength 2 rusbults

Answer 70

le agnew meta analysed and found 3 factors predicted committment and length of relationship in both genders, cultures and sexualities

Question 71

strength 3 of rusbults

Answer 71

study of abused women staying in shelter found those who reported high investment and low alternatives would go back due to high committment level

Question 72

weakness of rusbults

Answer 72

may be more to invest than resources eg: early relationship partners make dec investment but invest in future plans which inc committment. original model limited.

Question 73

what does ducks phase model suggest

Answer 73

the ending of a relationship is a long process that takes time

Question 74

whats the first stage within ducks phase model

Answer 74

intra- psychic one partner is dissatisfied but doesnt discuss

Question 75

threshold of intra psychic stage

Answer 75

“ i cant stand this anymore “

Question 76

whats the second stage within ducks phase model

Answer 76

dyadic they discuss dissatisfaction

Question 77

threshold in dyadic stage

Answer 77

“ i would be justified in leaving “

Question 78

whats the third stage in ducks phase mode

Answer 78

social phase seek support from friends, they may choose sides relationship has ended

Question 79

threshold of social phase

Answer 79

“ i mean it “

Question 80

whats the last stage of ducks phase model and the first threshold

Answer 80

grave dressing stage suitable story to put you in a positive light “ its inevitable “

Question 81

second threshold of grave dressing stage

Answer 81

“ time to get a new life “

Question 82

strength of ducks phase

Answer 82

real world application, repair strategies may be effective in some stages eg: communication in dyadic. model provides rw insights

Question 83

weakness of ducks phase

Answer 83

cultural differences, based on breakdown in individualistic cultures where relationships are voluntary, not collectivistic eg: arranged. ethnocentric and hard to generalise

Question 84

weakness 2 of ducks phase

Answer 84

rollie and duck added resurrection in which ex partners apply this relationship to future relationships. doesn’t consider complexity of breakdown

Question 85

weakness 3 ducks phase

Answer 85

limited detail. ducks model describes breakdowns but not why they occur. model may be improved using other theories.

Question 86

whats an example of dimorphism to talk about

Answer 86

the peacocks tail

Question 87

name 3 differences between male gametes and female gametes

Answer 87

- sperm is small and highly mobile - female gametes require energy, males dont - ova is produced in intervals for a limited no of years, sperm continuously

Question 88

sd within virtual

Answer 88

sd happens at different rates in virtual relationships due to 2 factors reduced cues theory hyperpersonal model

Question 89

whats the reduced cues theory

Answer 89

virtual relationships less effective due to lack of nonverbal cues ( eg: physical appearance, facial expressions) lack of cues lead to deinviduation people feel freer from contraints of social norms and leads to blunt communication and reluctance to self disclosure

Question 90

hyperpersonal

Answer 90

suggests sd happens quicker in virtual relationships, therefore the relationship develops sender has control of how they present themself anonymity can help disclose

Question 91

define absence of gating

Answer 91

in virtual relationships, barriers that normally limit relationship formation in real life—such as physical appearance, social anxiety, or manners—are not present.

Question 92

whats a parasocial relationship

Answer 92

one sided with a celebrity/ important person in society

Question 93

who found levels of parasocial

Answer 93

giles and maltby assessed behaviours and feelings towards celebrities using celebrity attitude scale

Question 94

name 3 stages of parasocial relationship

Answer 94

entertainment intense personal borderline pathological

Question 95

stage 1- entertainment

Answer 95

- celebrities seen as source of entertainment and fuel for social interaction - most people engage in parasocial relationships but stay at this level

Question 96

stage 2- intense personal

Answer 96

- become more personally involved, may include obsessive thoughts - typical for teenagers that are obsessed with every detail of famous celebrity

Question 97

stage 3- borderline pathological

Answer 97

- fantasies uncontrollable - behaviour extreme eg: spending large amounts of money or illegal activities such as stalking - people believe if they met then feelings would be reciprocated

Question 98

whats the absorption addiction model

Answer 98

mccutcheon 2002 people may become psychologically absorbed in a celebrity’s life to escape from their own problems or to fill a personal gap, such as low self-esteem or lack of real-life relationships. individual needs to increase dose of involvement to gain satisfaction. may lead to more extreme behaviours

Question 99

what 3 things did mccutcheon say

Answer 99

- pr make up for personal deficiencies eg: lack of fulfillment - provide escape from mundane lives - pushed towards by stress eg: bereavement

Question 100

attachment theory in parasocial relationships bowlby

Answer 100

suggested early difficulties may cause difficulties later parasocial may be used to replace social circle as they dont require same social skills

Question 101

attachment theory in parasocial relationships ainsworth

Answer 101

IR- likely to form as they want to have unfulfilled needs met with no risk of rejection IA- prefer to avoid pain and rejection

Question 102

strength 1 parasocial

Answer 102

- research support - maltby studied teens who had intense personal with female who body shape admired. - found female adolescents had poor body image - absorption addiction support

Question 103

weakness of parasocial relationships

Answer 103

- methodological issues - pr use self report, influenced by social desirability - reduces internal validity

Question 104

strength of attachment within parasocial

Answer 104

can be generalised across cultures collectivist and individual both likely to form parasocial who had insecure attachments universal

Question 105

weakness of parasocial

Answer 105

contradicts pps with insecure were no more likely to form pr with celebrities than pps with secure att cant explain lowers val

Question 106

strength of virtual relationships

Answer 106

research support lack of self monitoring provides evidence for hyper personal model eg: the rise of cyber bullying

Question 107

strength 2 virtual

Answer 107

can form another way of forming relationships than those who have struggled with face to face

Question 108

weakness virtual

Answer 108

reduced theory innacurate emoji’s, facetime etc

Question 109

weakness 2 virtual

Answer 109

lacks cultural relativism not everyone has access to internet ethnocentric