Define Hume’s “Fork”.
The name given to one of Hume’s philosophical claims.
There are two areas about which we can have knowledge: matters of fact and relations between ideas.
Who were the Vienna Circle?
A group of philosophers who met in early 20th century Vienna. Their theory of logical positivism inspired Ayer’s V.P.
What is logicial positivism?
Scientific/ logically necessary statements alone have meaning. These statements must be of logic or capable of proof by empirical evidence.
Metaphysical statements (including religious statements) are meaningless.
Define metaphysical statements.
Claims made about things beyond the empirical world.
Define cognitive language.
Language which conveys factual information and is open to examination. It is mostly synthetic in nature.
Define non-cognitive language.
Language of which it is inappropriate to ask whether or not it is factual and is open to examination.
Such language may make moral claims or it may convey emotions, give commands, etc.
What is the verification principle?
A development of the Vienna Circle’s Logical Positivism.
AJ Ayer says that the meaningfulness of a statement relies on its verifiability.
According to AJ Ayer, what are the two types of meaningful language?
Analytic statements - true by definition.
Synthetic statements - empirically verifiable.
What is the difference between verification in practise and verification in principle?
Verification in practise is possible only when statements can be conclusively established empircally.
Verification in principle is possible when it can be stated what observations would make the statement verifiable in practise and doing so could be possible in some point in the future.
What did Ayer conclude of unverifiable (in practise/principle) statements?
They have no factual meaning.
They are a “pseudo-proposition” (applied to statements i.e. “God exists” and “God is loving”).
Ethical statements are simply statements of approval or disapproval.
What 3 things did A.J. Ayer say of religious statements?
They are:
- neither true or false
- meaningless
- pointless
Strengths of the VP
- Straightforward, focuses on facts which can or cannot be verified.
- Aligned with a scientific approach. Considers scientific theories which cannot yet be verified.
- Ayer points to the need of being clear in one’s language. Some religious statements are obscure and unsupported. Philosophers of religion now think carefully of the nature of religious language.
Weaknesses of the VP
- Straightforward does not mean true. Too many people value ethics, philosophy and aesthetics for it to be meaningless.
- V.P. assumes that science tells us everything important of the world. Many would disagree.
- Karl Popper says that the scientific method works through falsification, not verification. “V.P. is flawed.”
- Ayer’s criticisms of religious claims are not true of all religious arguments. The basis that existence of the universe is made by an external creative intelligence on the observation that Human minds are creative is no more irrational than other scientific assumptions.
- The VP itself cannot be empirically verified and is therefore meaningless. It is a recommendation rather than a factual statement.
What is the basis of Anthony Flew’s Falsification Principle?
A statement is factually significant only if there is some form of evidence that could falsify it.
Inspiration for FP.
Karl Popper - criticised VP that scientific method is falsification not verification.
Support for the FP against religious statements.
Flew adopted and negatively presented John Wisdom’s Parable of the Gardener.
Religious believers will go to any length to stop anything counting against their faith claims.
Statements are continually modified/weakened to accommodate any challenge. They are empty statements.
What did Flew say of God?
“God dies the death of a thousand qualifications”.
Strengths of the FP.
- An improvement from the VP
- Flew, referring to the approach of some to religious beliefs: they are blinkered and refuse to take seriously the challenges to those beliefs. Instead, they make excuses.
Weaknesses of the FP.
- Flew’s category is too rigid. Many aspects of experience are not in the same category as scientific fact and have deep significance for humans.
- Not all religious believers allow nothing to falsify any of their claims. The problem of evil makes many question or even lose their faith.
Define eschatological verification
Hick’s view that the facts of Christianity will be verified/falsified at death.
Define blik.
A term used by Hare.
A fixed and unalterable view of the world that is not an assertion but is non-cognitive and non-falsifiable.
What are Hick’s claims of religious language?
- Cognitive
- Therefore, subject to verification
What does Hick conclude of the “Parable of the Celestial City”?
- There is no evidence for whether or not the road leads to a celestial city
- Their views on this dictate the way they travel along it
- At the end of the journey, all will be made clear: one will be right and the other will be wrong.
Evaluation of Hick’s EV 1)
+ Heaven is a possibility
- This does not mean it is true or a possibility. Atheists would dismiss the parable
C.A. There is evidence for life after death:
1) Near-death experiences
2) Memories of reincarnation
