1
Q
Define the term lab experiment and explain 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses
A
- highly controlled environment artificial environment where iv controlled to see effect on do. Conditions manipulated
- high control over extraneous variables as conditions manipulated. Cause and effect can be established between iv and dv. Increases internal validity
- high in reliability. As conditions can be repeated again in same conditions to check for consistent results
- low in ecological validity as it is an artificial environment cant generalise findings to elsewhere. Lowers external validity
- prone to demand characteristics as ppt can change their natural behaviour by picking up clues and hints the researcher might give off. Ppt may help or hinder the research lowers internal validity.
2
Q
Define field experiment, 2 strengths, 2 weaknesses
A
- a naturally environment such as school or office where the researcher manipulates iv to see effect on dv.
- high in ecological validity as it is a natural environment can generalise findings to real setting. High external validity
- less prone to demand characteristics as it is natural environment less likely to pick up clues and change natural behaviour. High internal validity.
-Low in reliability as can’t repeat is same conditions to check for consistent results
- ethical issue of lack of informed consent as ppt not aware they’re being observed
3
Q
Natural, 2 strengths and weaknesses
A
- naturally environment with naturally occurring iv
- high ecological validity as natural environment can generate to real life setting. Increasing external validity
- iv naturally occurring so no manipulation
- low control over extraneous variables as natural environment difficult to establish cause and effect between iv and dv. Lowering internal validity
- naturally occurring event may rarely happen difficult to repeat to check for consistent results
4
Q
Quasi
A
- Iv based on existing individual difference between ppl which researcher has not manipulated
- quasi can be conducted natural or controlled environment
- sample bias as difficult to generalise target pop so reduce external validity
5
Q
Naturalistic observation 2 strengths and weaknesses
A
- natural behaviour observed in natural environment. No manipulation
- less prone to demand characteristics
- high ecological validity
- low in reliability- difficult to replicate
- lack of informed consent
6
Q
Controlled observation 2 strengths and weaknesses
A
- conditions are manipulated carried out in artificial environment
- high in reliability
- high control over extraneous variables
- low ecological validity
- prone to demand characteristics
7
Q
Overt observation
A
- ppt are aware they’re being observed researcher is present
- more ethically appropriate ppt give their consent
- prone to demand characteristics as they know they being watched and can pick up clues
8
Q
Covert observation
A
- ppt dk they being observed, researcher is hidden (cameras, 2 way mirror)
- less prone to demand characteristics
- lack of informed consent
9
Q
Participant observation
A
- researcher is involved with the ppt , data collected with being part of group
- in depth understanding of behaviour, feelings and emotions increasing internal validity
- researcher bias, researchers own thoughts and behaviours may impact reducing the internal validity
10
Q
Non ppt observation
A
- researcher is not involved with the group, data collected from a distance
- reduced chance of researcher bias increases objectivity increasing internal validity
-less likely to gain in-depth understanding of behaviour
11
Q
Behaviour categories
A
- create operationalised categories which are specific to what ur observing
- to make it more measurable
12
Q
Time sampling
A
Tallying behaviour in set time interval eg every 2 mins
13
Q
Event sampling
A
- observer decided on specific events and they’re recorded every time within a set period of time eg 60mins
14
Q
Self report
A
-ppt give info abt thoughts feelings and behaviours
- questionnaire or interview
- open or closed questions in questionnaire
- interview structured or unstructured
15
Q
Questionnaire
A
- asking large sample of ppl for info abt a specific topic, involved pre set written questions, good representation of target pop
- reduced investigator effects as they do not have to be present and can not influence ppt answers increasing internal validity
- lead to social desirability ppt may light to present themselves in the best possible light , lowering internal validity
16
Q
Correlation analysis strengths weaknesses
A
- no manipulation of variables so can study sensitive issues that may raise ethical issues or may be inappropriate to manipulate.
- it is difficult to establish cause and effect between the 2 co variables as other intervening variables could have been responsible for the relationship found. This lowers the internal validity.
17
Q
Correlation co efficient
A
The number from a correlation stats test which tells us how strong or weak a correlation is. -1 strong neg +1 strong pos. The closer to 0 the weaker the correlation is.
18
Q
Directional and non directional correlation hypothesis
A
Non directional
- there will be a significant difference between (co variable 1) and (co variable 2)
Directional
- there will be a significantly positive or negative relationship between (co variable 1) and (co variable 2)
19
Q
Difference between correlation and an experiment
A
In experiment the researcher is looking for a difference where the IV is manipulated to measure effect on dv. It’s possible to establish cause and effect between iv and dv
Whereas
In correlation it shows a relationship between 2 co variables and there is no manipulation by the research so cause and effect cannot be established.
20
Q
Content analysis + strength and limitation
A
The process of analysing qualitative data and turning it into quantitative by identifying meaningful codes that can be counted and presenting the data in a graph
Easy to assess the reliability of the findings and conclusions as the researcher can access the materials and use the coding system to ensure findings are consistent
Researcher bias as the content that confirms the researchers hypothesis is more likely to be identified and recorded compared to the content that contradicts their aims and hypothesis. Lowers internal validity.
21
Q
How a content analysis is designed
A
-Read the transcript / video
- identify / create codes (categories)
- review transcript/ video and identify and tally each time a code appears
- present quantitative data in graph
22
Q
Thematic analysis
A
The process of analysing qualitative data and identifying themes enabling us to present data into qualitative form .
23
Q
How is thematic analysis carried out
A
- watch video to create transcript
- re read transcript
- identify coding categories
- combine these codes into 3-4 themes that are linked
- present data in qualitative form
24
Q
Case study + strength and weakness
A
An in-depth study done on one person or one group. They can be done over a long period of time with techniques such as interviews observations questionnaires . Data can also be collected from family and friends.
provides in depth detainee insight of behaviour that would be difficult to manipulate
Low population validity as only one person. Difficult to generalise to target population
25
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to measure, the purpose of the study
26
Hypothesis
A specific testable statement in which the researcher predicts what will happen between the variables
27
Outline difference between population and sample
A population is a group of ppl who are the focus of the researches interest
Whereas
A sample is a group of ppl taken from the target population to take part in research which is represented of the target pop.
28
Random sampling + ao3
everyone has an equal chance of being selected. Create list of target pop write names on paper and put in hat. Without looking select randomly the number u want if ur sample
Reduced bias as everyone has equal chance of being selected. Any extraneous variables will be divided between the diff groups. Increasing internal validity
Very time consuming to collect all names of ppt
29
Systematic sample + ao3
A system is applied to select ppt
Create sampling frame to organise the target population. Put ppl in alphabetical order. Decide on the system eg every 5th or 10th person chosen until there are enough ppt
Avoids researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is chosen to take part in the study
The sample may not be representative as not everyone has an equal chance of being picked therefore difficult to generalise to target pop
30
Opportunity sample
Being there in the moment of time eg ppt in canteen during lunch, 30 ppt who walk past are asked to take part
Very quick easy and less money is required
May not be representative of target pop as they in similar place can’t generalise to wider pop
31
Volunteer sample
Self selected method where ppl volunteer themselves to participate eg from placing an advert where ppl in target pop will see it
Very quick easy and cheap
May be sample bias or not be representative as type of personality extroverts will most likely volunteer
32
Stratified sampling
Samples reflect the proportions of certain sub groups in the target pop
How
- identify the diff subgroups female/male
- calculate how many each proportion u need
- number of ppt which make up each proportion are chosen using random sampling
Most representative sample correct proportions
Very time consuming working out the proportions
33
How to calculate a stratified sampling
Sample size wanted/100 x percentage size of subgroup
Sample size wanted/ target pop x subgroup size
34
Independent group design + ao3
Ppt only take part in one condition. Each condition has diff ppt
No order effects ppt can’t get better or worse at the task or fatigued as they’re only taking part in one
Individual differences may affect the dv eg some ppt may have better memory lowering internal validity
35
Repeated measures
The same ppt take part in both conditions
Individual differences are removed eg I was the same ppt take part. Therefore researcher can be sure that changes in the DV are due to IV increasing internal validity
Order effect can get better or worse at the task lowering internal validity
36
Matched pairs
Ppt are matched on their characteristics eg age iq by giving them appropriate test and matching them w same score . Randomly allocate one member of each pair to a condition
Reduces individual difference as ppt are matched on variables important to the study. Therefore researcher can be sure that changes in the Dv is due to iv
Very time consuming matching up and finding similar ppt
37
Problem w independent group design (individual differences) control ?
Random allocation- ensures ppt have same chance of being in one condition . Therefore less likely that all the ppt will have same characteristics
Write names of ppt out paper in hat randomly pick names and place half in condition 1 and half in condition 2
38
Problem with repeated measures order effects control?
Counterbalancing (ABBA)
Half the ppt complete condition A then condition B
The other half complete B first then A
Order effects are balanced across both conditions
39
Demand characteristics and how it can be controlled
Any clues given off within the researcher in which ppt could change their natural behaviour choosing to help or hinder the researcher reducing internal validity
Get a researcher in the same field who doesn’t know the aim of the study to carry out the experiment so they can not give off any clues to influence ppt
40
Investigator effects and how it can be reduced
When the researchers behaviour or characteristics can consciously or unconsciously influence the outcome of the research eg by the gender or tone
- neutral tone of voice
- same gender
- standardised script
41
Randomisation
Research should be by chance and not decided by the researcher which could be open to bias . This should be done by randomly generating numbers or order of conditions
42
Standardisation
All ppt experience the same environment and instructions to avoid extraneous variables
Use standardisation instructions and procedures for all ppt
43
Deception and how it can be resolved
Ppt are not informed of the true aim of the study
44
Peer review and why it’s conducted
Process in which psychological research papers before publication are independently scrutinised by other psychologists in same field to consider the research in terms of originality significance and validity.
To filter out flawed or scientific research and ensure quality
45
Assess and improve validity of observations (face and concurrent validity)
Fave validity - an independent psychologist in the same field checks if behaviour categories are measuring what it claims to measure. If they yes then the observation is valid
Concurrent- compare observation with pre existing similar observation and compare correlate the results from a stats test. Should be above 0.8+ . If the results are similar then we can assume the test is valid.
46
How to assess reliability of observations (interobserver reliability)
- checked by 2 observers
- 2 observers trained on how to use behaviour categories
- 2 observers conduct observation separately- watch exact same behaviour for same time but independently record their observation
- tallies from both are compared and correlated using stats test
- a strong positive correlation of 0.8+ shows high reliability
47
Ways to assess reliability of self report (test re test)
- ppt given questionnaire or interview to complete
- the same ppt are asked the same questions after a 2 week time delay
- compare the data on a scatter graph then correlate results using stats test
- strong pos of 0.8+ shows high reliability.
48
Difference between qualitative data and quantitative
Qualitative- descriptive data , written eg answers from open questions, interview notes
Quantitative- numerical data, obtained from results and individual scores or from closed questions
49
Qualitative ao3
In depth detail allows ppl to develop their thoughts and feelings. Provides greater understanding of behaviour
Harder to analyse or establish trends. Opens to researcher bias as analysis is based on their subjective opinion and interpretations .
50
Quantitative ao3
easy to analyse and draw comparisons between data. Patterns and trends can be established and can make conclusions.
Lacks in depth understanding of behaviour prevents ppt from developing their thoughts and feelings
51
Primary data
Data that is collected first hand from ppt themselves and is specific to the aim of the study
Collected first hand and is specific to the aim of the study target info
Involves frat time and effort to obtain data as well as analyse findings
52
Secondary data
Previously collected by a third party eg another researcher, not specific to the aim of the study eg pre existing data
Easily accessed and minimal effort to obtain already exists
May be poor quality and have inaccuracies outdated or incomplete might not meet direct needs
53
Mode
Most common number in set of scores. Used with nominal data
Easy to calculate less prone to distortion of extreme values as does not take in all data
Does not take account all scores so may be less accurate
54
Median
Middle number in a list of ordered scores . Used with ordinal data
Easy to calculate not affected my extreme values
Not as sensitive as mean
55
Mean
All scored added up and divided by total number of scores. Used with interval data
Most accurate and sensitive measure of central tendency as uses all data
Can be affected by extreme scores
56
What the standard deviation tells us
A high SD means scores are more spread around the mean so mare variation.
- the scores are less consistent and there are more individual differences in the results
A low SD means scores are less spread around the mean and so are more consistent and there are less individual differences
57
No ric table
N O. I
RM/ MP sign Wilcoxon Related
IG Chi Man. Unr
RS. Chi2 Spearman’s Pearso
58
Sign test
- testing difference
- nominal data
- RM
Add the pluses and minus
Take less frequent sign
= calculated value
59
Type 1 error
When the researcher uses a lenient p value. They think that the results are significant. They wrongfully accept alternative and wrongfully reject null.
60
Type 2 error
When the researcher uses a stringent p value. They think the results are not significant. They wrongfully accept null and wrongfully reject alternative.
61
Features of science - THEPROF
- theory construction- understanding of things
- hypothesis - testable and falsifiable
- empirical methods
- paradigm, paradigm shift
- replicability
- objectivity
- falsification
Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (5)
# Cards
