1
Q
define experimental method
A
involves manipulation of an IV to measure the effect of the DV. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
2
Q
define aim
A
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study
3
Q
define hypothesis
A
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study
4
Q
define directional hypothesis
A
states the direction of the difference or relationships (one tailed)
previous research available and reliable
5
Q
define non directional hypothesis
A
does not state direction of the difference or relationships
no previous research available
6
Q
define operationalisation
A
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
7
Q
define extraneous variable
A
any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controlled. nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV
8
Q
define Confounding variables
A
A kind of EV but the key feature is that it varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we cannot tell if changes in the DV are due to the IV or the CV.
9
Q
define Demand characteristics
A
any cue from the researcher/research situation that may be interpreted by the ppts as revealing the purpose of an investigation .This may lead to a participant to change their behaviour within the research situtaion
10
Q
define investigator effect
A
any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with participants during the research process
11
Q
define randomisation.
A
the use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when deciding the order of experimental conditions
12
Q
define matched pair design
A
pairs of ppts are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B
13
Q
define standardisation
A
using exactly the same formalised procedure and instructions for all the participants in a research study
14
Q
define experimental design
A
the different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
15
Q
define independent group designs
A
ppts are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
16
Q
define repeated measures
A
all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
17
Q
define random allocation
A
an attempt to control for participant variables in an independent group design which ensures each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as the other
18
Q
define counter balancing
A
an attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the ppts experience the condition in one order and the other half in the opposite order
19
Q
define a lab experiment
A
conducted in highly controlled settings/environment (not only in a lab.) IV in manipulated to see the effect on the DV
20
Q
define A field experiment
A
IV is manipulated to see the effect on the DV, This occurs in a natural setting/every day sitution
21
Q
define a natural experiment
A
eg. earthquakes
The IV id not manipulated by the researcher but would have occurred anyway. The IV is naturally occurring and the DV is measured.
22
Q
define a Quasi experiment
A
IV is not manipulated by the researcher, instead it is based on existing differences between people to see the effect on the DV.
–> also highly controlled like the lab
—> eg. age/gender/ethnicity
23
Q
Strengths and limitations of Lab experiments
A
S-
EVs and CVs can be controlled
high internal validity
can easily be replicated
L-
May lack generalisability/low external validity
low mundane realism/low ecological validity
Demand characteristics-> ppts may guess the purpose of the study
24
Q
Strengths and limitations of field experiments
A
S-
natural environment/ high mundane realism
ppts don’t know they are part of the investigation therefore low risk of demand characteristics
L-
Natural event may only occur rarely
Participants are not allocated randomly–> difficult to generalise
25
Strengths and limitations of Natural experiments
S-
sometimes only way to carry out an ethical investigation
great external validity
L.
Lack of mundane realism+ demand characteristics if conducted in a lab.
participants are not randomly allocated- findings may not be generalisable
these events rarely occur
26
strengths and limitations of Quasi experiments
S- high control
comparisons can be made between people
L- people cannot be randomly allocated therefore there may be CVs
Iv is not deliberately changed by the researcher therefore, we cannot be sure if it is the thing affecting the DV
27
describe what happens during briefing
this occurs before the study. The researcher informs the ppts about some or all of the aims, what they will be asked to do, their rights and whether they want to participate.
28
describe what happens during debriefing
occurs at the end of a study. This is important if deception has been used. Participants should be informed about the true nature of the study and must give their consent for their data to be used
29
name some examples of sampling techniques
random, stratified, opportunity, volunteer, systematic
30
Describe stratified sampling
1. researcher calculates proportion of ppts needed to mirror the target population-
researcher stratifies the population into a sampling frame to represent different subgroups within the target
2. all names go into a random generator
3. select names until they have the desired number of ppts
the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population or wider population.
31
define opportunity sample
researchers selecting anyone that seems to be willing and available
32
define volunteer sample
participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample (self selection)
33
define systematic sampling
researchers select ppts in a systematic way from the target population.
1. produce a sampling frame- a list of people in the target population organised in a particular way (eg. alphabetical order)
2.choose sampling system (eg. every 3rd person)
3.work through sampling frame until it is complete
34
define random sampling
when all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
eg. lottery method.
35
Strengths and Limitations of Random sampling
strengths
+unbiased-extraneous and confounding variables equally divided between groups increasing internal validity
Limitations
-Time consuming
-expensive
-selected participants may not agree to participate (it becomes more of a volunteer sample)
36
Strengths and Limitations of a systematic sample
S
+objective- once the system for sampling has been produced the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.
L
-time consuming
-may result in a volunteer sample
37
Strengths and Limitations of stratified samples
S
+can be generalised
+reduces researcher bias as once the strata has been identified the ppts are picked randomly
+highly representative--> easier to generalise
L
-does not fully represent target population, as there are personal differences not taken into account (dispositional variables)
38
Strengths and Limitations of Opportunity sample
s
+convenient
+more economic
L
-unrepresentative of the target population
-findings cannot be generalised-people taken from specific area
-researcher bias-researcher controls selection of ppts
39
Strengths and Limitations of Volunteer sample
S
more economical
less time consuming-easy to collect
engaged participants
L
-volunteer bias asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile... may try to please researcher
40
what is the BPS
British Psychological society -A quasi legal document that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. the code is built around 4 major principles... respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
41
Outline informed consent as an ethical issue
making participants aware of the aim of the research, their rights (eg. right to withdraw) and how their data will be used.
the ppt must make an informed judgement to take part, not feeling obliged
42
outline deception as an ethical issue
deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation
43
outline protection from harm in regards to ethical issues
participants should not be placed in more danger than they would be in their daily lives. this includes embarrassment or placed under stress/psychological stress.
--> participants must be reminded they have the right to withdraw from the investigation at any point
44
outline privacy and confidentiality in regards to ethical issues
ppts have the right to control information about themselves.
data protection act- confidentiality
the right to privacy also extends to the area the study was carried out in.
45
Name and explain some alternative ways of getting consent
Presumptive consent- instead of getting consent from the actual ppts, they ask another group of people if the study is acceptable.
Prior General Consent-ppts had given their permission to take part in a number of different studies including some that may have included deception
retrospective consent- ppts asked for their consent during debriefing after having already taken part in the study.
46
describe what a pilot study is and outline their aim-/purpose
a small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. Their aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work .The aim is to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications where necessary.
47
what is the single-blind procedure
when the participants are not aware of what the study's aim is. This is done to control the confounding effects of demand characteristics
48
what is the double blind procedure
when neither the participant not the researcher who conducts the study know the aim
this reduces researcher bias, they do not have expectations so their conclusions will not be biased
49
define a naturalistic observation`
watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it should normally occur.
50
describe controlled observations
watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment with standardized procedure
51
describe covert observations
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
52
define overt observations
participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
53
define participant observations
the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
54
define non participant observations
the researcher remains separate to the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
55
Strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic technique
s-
high external validity- higher generalisability
w-low internal validity- cannot control internal variables
lack of control of EVs
56
Strengths and weaknesses of controlled technique
s-
high internal validity
replicability
w-
low external validity lacks mundane realism
prone to demand characteristics since participants know they are part of the study
57
Strengths and weaknesses of overt technique
s-
ethical
w-demand characteristics- we do not get a real insight on natural behaviour
58
Strengths and weaknesses of of covert technique
s-
minimises chances of demand characteristics
validity- better insight on what is causing behaviour to change
w- ethical issues, lack of informed consent
privacy and confidentiality issues when it comes to how data is handled
59
Strengths and weaknesses of participant technique
w-
loss of objectivity- researcher begins to identify too strongly with the people they are investigating
this means they may begin to interpret participants in a more subjective way (based on personal opinions and beliefs)
s-validity- greater insight
60
Strengths and weaknesses of non-participant technique
s-
researcher is more likely to remain objective
w-
does not allow as much insight as participant technique
61
do observations have IVs
NO THEY DO NOT, REMEMBER THAT IDIOT
62
define behavioural categories
when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)
63
define time sampling
a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, eg every 60 secs
64
define event sampling
target behaviour/event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
65
what is an observational design
how researcher would plan an observational study
66
what is a unstructured observation
involves the researcher writing down everything they see. this is often rich in detail and is most appropriate for small scale observations with few participants
-usually qualitative data collected
67
strengths and weaknesses of unstructured observations
s-
richness of data collected adds to internal validity
w-
prone to observer bias due to lack of objective categories. Issue with interobserver bias due to lack of consistency in observations recorded
68
what are structured observations
sometimes there may be too much to note down so the researcher uses coded schedules to organise data and behavioural categories. This involves breaking target behaviour into measurable and observable components
-usually quantitative data
69
Strengths and weaknesses of structured observations
s-
researcher can compare the behaviour of participants across groups, the use of operationalised categories makes the coding of data more systematic
w-
lower internal validity because researcher my miss out other crucial behaviours.
70
what is inter observer reliability
2 or more researchers observe the same situation separately and then their observations are correlated to see if they are similar.
71
define what is meant by acquiescent bias
tendency for people to agree rather than to disagree
72
state some self report techniques
questionnaires, interviews, structured, semi-structured and unstructured.
73
what is a questionnaire
written self report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to answer.
They can be administered in person, by post, online, by telephone and in groups of people.
74
state and describe two possible formats of questionnaires
closed Qs- pre-determined set of answers to choose from-quantitative
open Qs- no restrictions on how participants make their response- qualitative
75
Evaluation- strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires
S-
cheap and quick way to get a large amount of data.
can completed privately (anonymously) answers are more likely to be honest/valid.
W-
reduced validity due to social desirability bias- ppts choosing particular answers just so that they can present themselves as socially acceptable.
often suffers from low response rate.
may be completed incorrectly if done in private as there is no experimenter to ask for guidance.
76
what is an interview
a self report technique that involves the experimenter asking the participant Qs usually in one to one basis and recording their responses
77
state and describe the 3 types of interviews
STRUCTURED-list of questions to answer, framework is rigid and standardised.
SEMI-STRUCTURED-there are some pre-set Qs but follow-ups may be asked throughput the interview
UNSTRUCTURED- interviewer may have a list of topics but has flexibility to lead the convo further leading to a deeper and more detailed discussion
78
EValuation Strengths and Weaknesses of Interviews
S-
unstructured interviews provide potential to gather rich and detailed info from each participant
unstructured best sited for discussing complex or sensitive issues as participants are more likely to relax and give valid responses as the responses flow
structured interviews in which questions are standardised allow for easier data comparisons
interviews can be used in pilot studies to gather information prior to conducting the proposed research
W-
lots of time and expenses involved in training interviewers
structured do not allow follow-ups thus missing valuable insight
time consuming to test and analyse
interviews require people to have competencies this could potentially limit sample size
79
define primary data and give examples
field research- original data collected first-hand specifically for the investigation by the researcher
eg. questionnaire/ observation
80
define secondary data and give examples
desk research , data is already existing has been collected by someone else.
eg. journals/ articles
81
difference between qualitative and quantitative data
quantitative- numerical
qualitative- data that is expressed in words and usually non-numerical
82
S and W of qualitative data
S-
greater external validity- broader in scope as ppts are able to fully report their thoughts
W-
conclusions can be subjective- biased since data is difficult to analyse
83
S and W and quantitative data
S-
easier to analyse and draw conclusions graphically.
data is numerical so it is more objective and less open to bias
W-
narrower in detail and meaning , lower external validity
84
describe meta analysis
the process of combining the findings of a number of studies on a particular topic. the aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion (the effect size) based on a range of studies.
85
S and W of meta analysis
S-
creates a larger more varied sample and results can therefore be generalised across a larger population increasing validity
W-
publication bias/file drawer problem- researcher may not select all relevant studies, leaving some out meaning that they only present some of the relevant data.
86
Define population
a group of people who are the factors of the researchers interest from which a smaller sample is drawn
87
define sample
a group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population being studied
88
identify 5 types of sampling
random
systematic
stratified
opportunity
volunteer
89
identify 3 categories of quantitative research
Nominal data
Ordinal data
interval
90
describe nominal data and give an example
data that can be separated into discrete categories that do not overlap. Each participant only appears in one category.
examples include hair colour
91
describe ordinal data and give an example
ordered date where there is no standardised value for the difference from one score to another. Used in subjective studies. They lack certainty.
eg a rating of satisfaction regarding service
92
describe interval data and give an example
data where the difference between values is standardised. It is objective and scientific
for example temperature
93
advantages and limitations of ordinal data
Strength
more detailed
Limitations
intervals not equal between scores.
therefore average cannot be used s a measure of central tendency
--->median is usually used to overcome this limitation
94
S and L of nominal data
S
easily generated
-mode can be used as a measure of central tendency
L
data does not reflect its true complexity therefore it can appear overly simplistic.
no measure of dispersion can be used
95
define what we mean by 'measures of central tendency' and provide examples
averages which give us information about the most typical values in a set of data.
MEAN- average
MODE-most frequent
MEDIAN-middle
96
define what we mean by measures of dispersion
based on the spread of scores, how far scores vary and differ from one another.
range
standard deviation
97
define standard deviation
a single value that tells us how far scores deviate , move away from the mean.
98
the larger the standard deviation value the ___________ the dispersion of data. Suggesting that not all ppts were affected by the IV in the same way. Meaning there may be a few anomalous results
the larger the standard deviation value the greater the dispersion of data. Suggesting that not all ppts were affected by the IV in the same way. Meaning there may be a few anomalous results
99
why is the standard deviation a more precise measure of dispersion than the range?
standard deviation includes all the values...
HOWEVER that also can lead to distorted result due to extreme values
100
what does the correlation co efficient tell us?
the strength of the correlation, how strong the relationship between then 2 variables is
101
state the correlation coefficient of a perfect negative and a perfect positive
perfect negative= +1.0
perfect positive= -1.0
102
A correlation co efficient of 0.00 means...
there is no relationship between the variables
103
define peer review
the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is high quality.
104
what are the aims of peer review
to validate quality and relevance of the study- methodology and conclusions are assessed in terms of accuracy and validity
to allocate research funding
to suggest amendments or improvements before publication
105
what can be some points of evaluation
anonymity- some reviewers may use this to criticise rival researchers
Publication bias-tendency for editors to publish significant looking findings which may cause them to not publish something that may acc be important. This creates false impression of the current state of psychology
Burying ground breaking research- professionals in the field asses credibility- if does not align with the current research they my not publish in order to maintain status quo
106
role of inferential stats
analyse the significance of patterns in data
107
outline the 3 levels of data
Nominal-data is separated into categories
Ordinal- data ordered in some way- numerical data
Interval-units of equal measurements are used eg. mins
108
name 5 non parametric tests
Sign test
Wilcoxon
Mann Whitney
Spearman's rank
Chi Squared
109
outline sign test
related design only
110
Outline Wilcoxon signed ranks test
related design only
looks at the differences between related values of pairs and ranks these.
uses more info than the sign test so it is more sensitive
111
outline Mann Whitney
unrelated design only, wilcoxon test but uses ranked scores instead of actual scores
112
Outline Spearman's Rank order
Measures the strength of a relationship between pairs of related values, it uses ranked values not actual values
assesses the significance of the association
113
Outline the Chi Squared test
equivalent of sign test
unrelated design
data is collected in the form of frequencies and placed in a table
assesses the association between 2 variables
114
type 1 error
Aka False positive
significant is set too lenient
a situation where we assume findings show something when they do not
eg, you tell a virgin she is preggy when clearly by the laws of biology she isn't
we conclude the results were due to the IV when they were actually due to chance
115
type 2 error
aka false negative
due to significance being set too strictly
accepting null hypothesis when it is false
we assume results were due to chance when it was actually due to the iv
116
format of a report
1. title
2. table of contents
3. abstract
4. intro
5. aims
6. hypothesis
7. procedure
8. findings
9. discussion
10. conclusion
11. references
12. appendices
117
referencing
author, initials. (yr publication).Title of journal in italics. Place of publication: Publisher
118
outline content analysis
observational technique which involves studying people indirectly, through qualitative data.
qualitative data from like recordings questionnaires etc etc
Content analysis helps to classify responses in a way that is systematic, which can then allow clear conclusions to be drawn.
Coding- categories developed for data to be classified , helps make succinct conclusions
119
Outline Meta analysis
a large number of studies, which have involved the same research question and methods of research, are reviewed together and the combined data is tested by statistical techniques to assess the effect size.
combines data from lots of smaller studies into one larger study, which allow you see different trends and relationships to get an overall picture.
120
outline thematic analysis
A method of qualitative research linked to content analysis, which involves analysing data to identify the patterns within it.
1. Familiarisation with the data
2. Coding
3. Searching for themes
4. Reviewing themes
5. Defining and naming themes
6. Writing up
Thematic analysis goes beyond just counting words or phrases, and involves identifying ideas within data.
120
Evaluation of Meta Analysis
S- conclusions drawn will be based on a larger sample which provides greater confidence for generalisation. This, therefore, serves to increase the validity of the patterns and trends identified.
L- bias associated with meta-analyses. Since the researcher is selecting data from research which has already taken place, they may choose to omit certain findings from their investigation. As a result, the findings and conclusions from the meta-analysis will be biased as they do not accurately represent all of the relevant data on the topic.
121
outline longitudinal
studies follow the same sample or group over an extended period of time. Information/data is collected at regular intervals over the period of time.
121
Thematic Analysis Strengths
High Ecological validity, conclusions based on observations of real life behaviour
since records of there resources remain replication of content and thematic analysis can be conducted
121
Thematic analysis weaknesses
L- subjective findings due to researcher interpretations
L- cultural differences may contribute to inconsistent interpretation of behaviour coding. Languages translated and interpreted differently ---> low validity
122
outline Case study
Provide a detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real-life event.
Often used where there is a rare behaviour being investigated which does not arise often enough to warrant a larger study being conducted. A case study allows data to be collected and analysed on something that psychologists have very little understanding of, and can therefore be the starting point for further, more in-depth research.
122
Evaluation of Case studies
L-difficult to generalise any findings to the wider population since results are likely to be so unique. This therefore creates issues with external validity as psychologists are unable to conclude with confidence that anyone beyond the ‘case’ will behave in the same way under similar circumstances, thus lowering population validity.
L-Subjectivity
S-opportunity to unveil rich, detailed information, provides unique insights.
123
123
Longitudinal studies evaluation
S- development overtime monitored allowing for better conclusions to be drawn
L- Sample attrition= people dropping out of the study making the remaining sample less representative
L-Large amounts of data can be difficult to analyse.
L- Can cost a shitload
124
what are the 5 features of science
1. Have a definable subject matter/Paradigm
2. Theories constructed from which hypotheses are derived and tested
3. Concepts must be falsifiable
4.There must be a use of empirical methods of investigation
which can be replicated
5. There must be general laws that govern human behaviour
(generalisation - nomothetic)
125
difference between deduction and induction
deduction- general premise applied to specific cases to reach a specific conclusion
induction- specific observations and then form a general conclusion/hypothesis
bottom up approach
125
outline the 3 stages of science argued by KHUN
Pre-science: no paradigm exists, and there is much debate
about what the subject is and its theoretical approach.
Normal Science: A generally accepted paradigm that can account for all the phenomena related to the subject, and
can explain and interpret all findings.
Scientific revolution: evidence against the old paradigm
reaches a certain point, and there is a paradigm shift. The
old paradigm is replaced by a new one.
126
private subjective
Personal subjective phenomena
and unique to the individual. Private
subjective experiences cannot be easily
investigated using scientific procedures.
Cannot be verified, cannot control behaviour, cannot predict behaviour and it cannot be generalised as laws of behaviour
127
PSYCH IS NOT A SCIENCE
Not possible to ‘experiment’ on human beings
Sources of bias in psychology:
Demand characteristics (please you – screw you)
Experimenter bias – (age, sex, other social characteristics influence
results).
Ethical issues – studies have to be adapted to avoid ethical issues which
may reduce scientific credibility.
Unable to control all variables.
Unable to be objective – experimenters are humans too.
Humanists argue that mechanistic and reductionist view ignores the
role of ‘free will’ and complexity of human experience.
Science is generalisable across time and space. Psychological
explanations are often restricted to context.
Subject matter of psychology is unobservable and cannot be accurately
measured and is inferred.
Psychology is a pre-science (Kuhn).
Not all approaches are falsifiable (Popper).
128
PSYCH IS SCIENCE
Psychology applies the scientific method
Strives for accurate, reliable and generalisable results.
Hypotheses can be tested.
Theories can be tested which then provide general laws
of behaviour fulfilling the aims of science
understanding, prediction and control.
Psychology has provided many real life applications
which improve peoples lives – we are able to
understand the causes of behaviour and predict certain
behaviour.
129
A LEVEL PSYCH
flashcards
Decks in class (16)
# Cards
-
Social Influence43
-
Asch's conformity study-social influence18
-
Research methods135
-
Zimbardo's prison experiment-social influence11
-
Reliability7
-
Milgram's Obedience Study- social influence21
-
Studies and their researchers that wont stick to my peanut sized brain8
-
MEMORY80
-
Approaches in psychology21
-
Biopsychology98
-
Psychopathology33
-
Cognition and Development1
-
Issues and Debates26
-
AGGRESSION AO10
-
AGGRESSION AO318
-
Inferential stats2
