1
Q
Primary Research
A
Research that is undertaken by the researcher firsthand e.g. interviews, observation, questionnaire
2
Q
Secondary Research
A
Pre-existing information which has been put together by another person or organisation, which a sociologist can access and use in their own research e.g. personal documents, official statistics.
3
Q
Quantitative research sources
A
Sources that generate numerical data e.g. questionnaires, official statistics
4
Q
Qualitative research sources
A
Sources that generate non-numerical data to understand opinions, thoughts, feelings and experiences e.g. unstructured interviews and personal documents.
5
Q
Positivists
A
E.g Durkheim
Reliability
Representativeness
Quantitative data
6
Q
Interpretivists
A
E.g Weber
Validity
Verstehen
Subjectivity
Qualitative data
7
Q
4 Practical Factors
A
- Time and Money
- Influence of funding sources
- Skills and characteristics of researcher
- Access to research population
8
Q
5 Ethical Factors
A
- Informed consent.
- Deception.
- Privacy and confidentiality
- Protection from harm.
- Vulnerable groups.
9
Q
Theoretical Factors
A
- Reliability
- Validity
- Representativeness
10
Q
Questionnaires Bullet Points
A
- Primary method
- Mostly quantitative
- Favoured by positivists
11
Q
Questionnaires Description
A
A list of questions to a participant usually via post or email. Sometimes referred to as a self-completion survey. Mostly use closed questions, such as multiple-choice tick boxes. Some questions may have a rating scale.
12
Q
Practical Advantage of Questionnaires
A
Quick & cheap method - data I’d easy to collect and analyse
13
Q
Practical Limitation of Questionnaires
A
May need to offer a financial incentive to get a good response rate.
14
Q
Ethical Advantage of Questionnaires
A
No major ethical issues – highly confidential as anonymous.
15
Q
Ethical disadvantage of Questionnaires
A
None – although may not be useful for researching vulnerable groups.
16
Q
Theoretical advantage of Questionnaires
A
High in reliability as can be replicated.
High in representativeness due to large sample.
17
Q
Theoretical Disadvantage of a Questionnaire
A
Lack validity as people cannot answer in their own words & lacks detailed understanding of thoughts and feelings.
18
Q
Structured Interviews Bulletin Points
A
- Primary Method
-Mostly quantitative - Favoured by positivists
19
Q
Description of a Structured Interview
A
A list of questions is read out to a participant face-to-face. Mostly use closed questions, such as multiple-choice tick boxes. Some questions may have a rating scale
20
Q
Example of Structured Interviews
A
Willmott and Young for their study on the symmetrical family.
21
Q
Questionnaires Example
A
- British Social Attitudes Survey
- Crime Survey for England and Wales.
22
Q
Practical Advantage of Structured Interviews
A
Access to group – higher response rate the questionnaires as researcher is present.
23
Q
Practical Limitation of Structured Interviews
A
More time-consuming than a questionnaire as has to be completed one at a time.
24
Q
Ethical Advantage of Structured Interviews
A
No major ethical issues – can explain the purpose of the interview and get informed consent.
25
Ethical Disadvantage for Structured Interviews
None – although may not be useful for researching vulnerable groups as cannot build up trust.
26
Theoretical Advantage of Structures Interviews
High in reliability as can be replicated.
High in representativeness due to large sample.
27
Theoretical Disadvantage of Structured Interviews
The presence of the researcher may influence the answers of the participant.
28
Unstructured Interview Bullet Points
- Primary method
- Mostly qualitative
- Favoured by interpretivists
29
Unstructured Interview Description
A guided conversation. The researcher will have questions and prompts, but they do not need to stick to these strictly.
30
Unstructured Interview Example
Dobash and Dobash to interview victims of domestic violence.
31
Practical Advantage of Unstructured Interviews
Access to hard-to-reach groups more likely as can build up trust and a rapport.
32
Practical Limitation of Unstructured Interview
Time consuming to do and to analyse.
Need to be skilled as a researcher.
33
Ethical Advantage of Unstructured Interviews
No ethical issues. Good for studying sensitive topics and vulnerable groups.
34
Ethical Limitation of Unstructured Interviews
Must be careful not to ask questions that invade a participant’s privacy.
35
Theoretical Advantage of Unstructured Interviews
High in validity as participants are speaking in their own words – truer, more accurate picture. Verstehen.
36
2 Theoretical Limitations of Unstructured Interviews
- Likely to be a small sample as so time- consuming, so will not be representative.
- Not reliable as not replicable.
37
Semi structured Interviews Key Points
- Primary method
- Quantitative & Qualitative
- Used by positivists & interpretivists
38
Semi Structured Interviews Description
A combination of structured & unstructured techniques. Typically, they involve closed questions with opportunities for the participant to elaborate on the answers they give.
39
Semi Structured Interviews Practical Advantage
Less time consuming that a completely unstructured interview.
40
Semi Structured Interviews Practical Limitation
Require skills for unstructured element of the interview.
41
Semi Structured Interviews Ethical Advantage
No major issues – e.g. can get informed consent.
42
Semi Structured Interviews Ethical Disadvantage
May breach privacy
43
Semi Structured Interviews Theoretical Advantage
Can collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
44
Semi Structured Interviews Theoretical Disadvantage
Not reliable as cannot be fully replicated.
45
Group Interview Key Points
- Primary method
- Qualitative
- Favoured by interpretivists
46
Group Interview Description
An unstructured interview with two or more people at a time.
47
Group Interview Example
Paul Willis used them when researching ‘the lads’.
48
Group Interview Practical Advantage
Access to research population – may be easier to access in a group
49
Group Interview Practical Limitation
Time-consuming to conduct and analyse.
50
Group Interview Ethical Advantage
Good for vulnerable groups as may feel more confident to speak in a group setting.
51
Group Interview Ethical Limitation
Cannot guarantee confidentiality – participants may share what was discussed.
52
Group Interview Theoretical Advantage
Validity – people share thoughts and opinions and generate new discussion.
53
Group Interview Theoretical Limitation
People may lie or exaggerated in a group due to the influence of peers – reducing validity.
54
Non-Participant Observation Key Points
- Primary Method
- Qualitative & Quantitative
- Favoured by interpretivists
55
Non-Participation Observation Description
The researcher watching without interacting with the group in any way.
56
Non-Participant Observation Example
Venkatesh – gang leader for a day / Paul Willis’ study with the ‘lads.’
57
Practical Advantage of Non Participant Observation
Researcher can record observations openly if overt.
58
Practical Limitation of Non Participant Observation
Time consuming to record and analyse data.
59
Ethical Advantage of Non Participant Observation
If overt can get informed consent and no deception is involved.
60
Ethical Limitation of Non Participation Observation
If covert, cannot give consent and are being deceived.
61
Theoretical Advantage of Non Participant Observation
Validity – people share thoughts and opinions and generate new discussion.
62
Theoretical Limitation of Non Participant Observation
If overt, may change behaviour (Hawthorn effect).
Small sample – lacks representativeness
63
Participant Observation Key Points
- Primary method
- Qualitative
- Favoured by interpretivists
64
Participant Observation Description
A researcher joining in with the activities of the group being studied. This approach is more likely to be done covertly.
65
Participant Observation Example
James Patrick - A Glasgow Gang observed
66
Practical Advantage of Participant Observation
Access to research population – may be the only way to access some groups e.g. criminals
67
2 Practical Limitations of Participant Observation
- Researcher needs correct characteristics to join the group covertly.
- Difficult to record observations covertly.
68
Ethical Advantage of Participant Observation
If overt – can get informed consent, if covert are major ethical issues.
69
3 Ethical Limitations of Participant Observation
If covert...
- Cannot get informed consent
- Deception
- Cannot protect participants from harm.
70
2 Theoretical Advantages of Participant Observation
- Highly valid as seen in natural environment.
- Verstehen – get an understanding of their lives.
71
Theoretical Advantage of Participant Observation
Highly valid as seen in natural environment. Verstehen – get an understanding of their lives.
72
Theoretical Limitation of Participant Observation
Lacks reliability – cannot be replicated.
Lacks representativeness – small sample.
73
Laboratory Expirements Key Points
- Primary method
- Quantitative
- Favoured by positivists
74
Laboratory Experiments Description
The experiment takes place in an artificial setting. The researcher manipulates (changes) something and measures the effects on the participants.
75
Laboratory Experiments Example
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment
76
Laboratory Experiments Example
Bandura's bobo doll
77
Practical Advantages of Laboratory Experiments
None
78
Practical limitation of Laboratory Experiments
Time consuming to conduct and expensive to set up.
79
Ethical Advantage of Laboratory Experiments
None
80
Ethical Limitation of Laboratory Experiments
Participants are usually not informed of the true aims of the research – involves deception.
81
Theoretical Advantage of Laboratory Experiments
Highly controlled, so can be replicated. Therefore is reliable.
82
Theoretical Limitations of Laboratory Experiments
Does not occur in a natural setting, so lacks validity.
83
Field Experiments Key Points
- Primary method
- Qualitative
- Favoured by interpretivists
84
Field Experiments Description
The experiment takes place in natural setting such as a street or shopping centre. The researcher manipulates something and measures the effects on the participants.
85
Field Experiments Examples
Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study of positive labelling in schools.
86
Practical Advantage of Field Experiments
Cheaper and easier to set up than a lab experiment, as uses the natural environment.
87
2 Practical Limitation of Field Experiments
- Time consuming
- Difficult to record behaviours.
88
Ethical Advantages of Field Experiments
None because they are usually covert
89
Ethical Limitations of Field Experiments
Participants are usually not informed of the true aims of the research – involves deception. Cannot get informed consent,
90
Theoretical Advantage of Field Experiments
Natural setting increases validity as people are more likely to behave naturally + no Hawthorn effect.
91
2 Theoretical Limitations of Field Experiments
- Small samples so lacks representativeness.
- Low in reliability as cannot be replicated.
92
Official Statistics Key Points
- Secondary method
- Quantitative
- Favoured by positivists
93
Official Statistics Description
Numerical data sets which have been gathered by formal sources often working on behalf of the government.
94
Official Statistics Examples
- Official Crime Statistics from police records
- GCSE exam results
- Census data
95
Practical Advantage of Official Statistics
Time and money – free and easy to access online.
96
Practical Limitations of Official Statistics
Few practical limitations - can be time consuming if analysing very large data sets.
97
Ethical Advantage of Official Statistics
There are no ethical issues – all ethical standards can be maintained.
98
Ethical Limitation of Official Statistics
None
99
Theoretical Advantage of Official Statistics
Very large samples = high representativeness. Reliable as come from trusted, replicable sources.
100
2 Theoretical Limitation to Official Statistics
Lack validity – do not tell us about people’s thoughts & feelings.
Official stats are socially constructed e.g. dark figure of crime
101
Documents Key Points
- Secondary Method
- Qualitative
- Favoured by interpretivists
102
Documents Description
Personal documents - written by individual people for personal reasons. Examples: diaries, letters
Public documents – produced by public sources
103
Examples of Documents
OFSTED reports
NHS reports
104
Practical Advantage of Documents
Public documents are easily accessible via government websites.
105
Practical Limitation of Documents
Personal documents if historical may be harder to access.
Time consuming to analyse personal docs.
106
Ethical Advantage of Documents
No major ethical issues as secondary sources.
107
Ethical Limitation of Documents
May need to get consent from families to use personal docs.
108
Theoretical Advantage of Documents
Personal documents – high in validity as written in own words & describe thoughts and feelings.
109
Theoretical Limitation of Documents
Author of personal docs may have exaggerated / lied.
Low representativeness as small sample.
110
Media Sources Key Points
- Secondary Method
- Used by interpretivists through semiotic analysis = qualitative
- Used by positivists through content analysis = quantitative
111
Media Sources Description
Documents created by media sources
112
Examples of Media Sources
Newspapers, TV, adverts, music videos
113
Semiotic Analysis
Interpreting text / images.
Used by interpretivists
114
Content Analysis
Recording the frequency of something e.g. tallying types of news stories
Used by positivists
115
Practical Advantage of Media Sources
Easy to access as widely available
116
Practical Limitation of Media Sources
Time consuming to do content or semiotic analysis.
117
Ethics of Media Sources
No advantages or limitations as there isn’t any ethical issues
118
Theoretical Advantages of Media Sources
Content analysis can be used to get quantitative data, and is replicable therefore reliable.
119
Theoretical Limitation of Media Sources
Semiotic analysis is not reliable as it depends upon the interpretation / biases of the researcher
120
Sociology
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