Research Methods

Question 1

what is an aim?

Answer 1

a general statement about the purpose of an investigation - gives the investigation clear focus - always needs an aim

Question 2

give an example of how to write an aim?

Answer 2

e.g. ‘to investigate the relationship between stress and illness’
‘to find out whether intelligence affects happiness’

Question 3

what is a hypothesis?
what must it include?

Answer 3

a very specific, testable statement or prediction regarding the outcome of the investigation.
it must include: significant, difference?correlation/assossiaction, means/variables and they must be operationalised.

Question 4

what is an experimental (alternative/alternate) hypothesis?

what are the 2 different ways of writing it?

Answer 4

this type of hypothesis predicts that there will be a significant difference, association/relationship between the means/variables.

directional (one tailed) and non-directional (two tailed)

Question 5

what is a directional hypothesis?

Answer 5

directional hypotheses are more specific and predict the direction of the findings. it will use words such as higher/lower, more/less, faster/slower, etc.

e.g. “younger ppts will recall significantly on average more words correctly from the list than older ppts”

*only to be used when there has been previous research that has found something similar

Question 6

what is a non-directional hypothesis

Answer 6

non-directional hypotheses are more general. they simply state that there will be an effect/difference or relationship

e.g. “there will be a significant difference in the mean number of correctly recalled words from the list of 20, between younger and older ppts”

*only to be used when thee has been NO previous research that has found something similar or inconsistent findings on the subject

Question 7

What is a null hypothesis?

Answer 7

This type of hypothesis predicts that there will be no effect/difference, association/relationship found, and that any effects found are due to chance factors.

e.g. “there will be no significant difference in the main number of words that can be correctly recalled from the list of 20 words, between older and younger participants, any difference will be due to chance.”

Question 8

what is peer review?

Answer 8

the process by which research is scrutinised by expert ‘peers’ of that field of research, to check the quality and validity of the methods used before publication.

Question 9

why is peer review important?

Answer 9

we don’t want poor quality or unscientific theories to be published; they could have a negative effect on/in society

Question 10

what is the definition of independent variable?

Answer 10

an event which is controlled by the researcher to see if it will impact another variable e.g. number of hours ppt is allowed to sleep each night during the study (4,6,8,etc.)

Question 11

what is the definition of dependent variable?

Answer 11

what the researcher is measuring e.g. score out of 20 on a memory test

Question 12

what is operationalisation?

Answer 12

the process of clearly defining variables so they can be measured and tested in a research study. In psychology, it means turning abstract concepts, such as “stress” or “memory,” into specific, measurable variables that can be observed and quantified.

Question 13

What is a confounding variable?

Answer 13

Any variable other than the IV that has had an effect on the DV

Question 14

What is an extraneous variable?

Answer 14

Any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV

Question 15

What happens if extraneous variables are not controlled?

Answer 15

if they are not controlled, we cannot be sure that it is the IV that has affected the DV

Question 16

Why must extraneous variables be controlled?

Answer 16

So that participants are tested in identical conditions

Question 17

What can extraneous variables be a result from?

Answer 17

Random error (participant) or constant error (situational)

Question 18

How can we control extraneous variables? (7)

Answer 18

• random allocations to conditions - reduces investigator effects
• counterbalancing - reduces order effects and demand characteristics
• randomisation (of the order of use of variables) - reduces investigator effects
• standardised procedures & instructions - reduce investigator effects/bias, ppt variables and situational variables
• single blind technique - reduces ppt variables and demand characteristics
• double blind technique - reduce investigator effects, ppt variables and situational variables
• experimental design - reduces ppt variables

Question 19

What are investigator effects?

Answer 19

aspects of the investigator and their presence that can influence the ppts or the responses they give. E.g. age, gender, accent, personality, ethnicity, attractiveness, tone of voice, nodding, smiling, frowning, etc.

Question 20

How can investigator effects be limited?

Answer 20

• double blind procedures
• standardised procedures

Question 21

What is a situational variable?

Answer 21

A variable from the environment that affects all participants and the DV consistently

Question 22

What are some examples of situational variables/constant error?

Answer 22

E.g. temperature, noise, distractions in the environment, a failure to counterbalance the order of experimental conditions, participant, differences, errors of measurements, which affect one condition, more than another (and demand characteristics)

Question 23

What is a participant variable?

Answer 23

The characteristic/individual differences that affect individuals differently

Question 24

What are some examples of participant variables/random errors?

Answer 24

E.g. participants, IQ, age, gender, state of mind, level of motivation, previous experiences on the day of the experiment.

Question 25

What is a type 1 error?

Answer 25

a false positive. where you accept the alternative/hypothesis when it is false, the result is found through chance

Question 26

What is a type 2 error?

Answer 26

a false negative. Where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false, the result is found through chance

Question 27

If sources of error/extraneous variables become confounding variables, is the experiment more at risk of committing a type 1 error or type 2 error?

Answer 27

Type 1 error

Question 28

If the experiment is too controlled, is it more at risk of committing a type 1 error or type 2 error?

Answer 28

Type 2 error

Question 29

What are demand characteristic?

Answer 29

They are cues or clues in an investigation, which may convey information about the purpose of the research to the participants. This may lead to the participants working out, or thinking they have worked out, the hypothesis. This in turn, may lead to a change in their behaviour or responses.

Question 30

What are some clues in an investigation that may cause demand characteristics?

Answer 30

- information that is communicated to participants by the researcher or other participants - the setting of the study - the nature of any tasks the participants are asked to perform

Question 31

how can researchers control demand characteristics?

Answer 31

- single blind procedures - ppts don't know which condition of the research they are taking part in - deception - giving a false hypothesis to ppts

Question 32

what are 2 types of order effects?

Answer 32

practice effect - where ppt's performance improves across conditions through familiarity with the task or environment fatigue effect - where ppt's performance worsens across conditions because of tiredness/boredom

Question 33

how can order effects be reduced?

Answer 33

have half the ppts complete condition A first and then condition B, whilst the half of ppts complete condition B first followed by condition A

Question 34

what is social desirability bias?

Answer 34

it occurs when ppts automatically try to respond (e.g. verbally) in ways that make them seem likeable in a study, even if it means misrepresenting how they truly feel

Question 35

what is reliability?

Answer 35

the extent to which a method of measurement or test produces consistent findings

Question 36

how can reliability be tested?

Answer 36

test-retest: where you have a measure that you carry out with 1 set of ppts, and carry it out again later with other ppts. Reliable if >0.80 correlation inter-observer: where 2 researchers use a measure and their results are compared to see if they are similar (e.g. content analysis interviews). Reliable if >0.80 correlation

Question 37

how can reliability be improved?

Answer 37

- questionnaires: increase the clarity of questions, fewer open questions, deselect less helpful questions - interviews: use the same trained interviewer each time (reduces interviewer bias and increases validity), use structured interview - experiments: a high degree of control over the experiment - observations: ensure observational categories have been operationalised and are specific

Question 38

what is internal validity?

Answer 38

the extent to which the test measures what it intended to

Question 39

what external validity?

Answer 39

the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to other situations - ecological - population - temporal

Question 40

how can validity be assessed?

Answer 40

face validity: does the test appear to measure what it is supposed to? concurrent validity: assesses if a new test produces results similar to an existing, established test that measures the same concept or construct. Checked by correlating the results from both tests using a statistical method (e.g. Pearson's test)

Question 41

what is random sampling?

Answer 41

a sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected

Question 42

what is a method used for random sampling?

Answer 42

Random Number Generator: 1) number every member of the target population 2) use a random number generator (e.g. calculator) to select the ppts of the study 3) reassign numbers to names of ppts

Question 43

what are the strengths of random sampling?

Answer 43

it is unbiased - all members of target population have an equal chance of selection

Question 44

what are the limitations of random sampling?

Answer 44

- need to have a list of all members of target population and contact all these people which takes time - ppts could say no

Question 45

what is opportunity sampling?

Answer 45

where ppts are chosen because they are easily available

Question 46

what are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

Answer 46

- easiest method of sampling - takes less time to allocate your sample

Question 47

what are the limitations of opportunity sampling?

Answer 47

bias - sample is drawn from small part of population

Question 48

what is volunteer sampling?

Answer 48

where ppts put themselves forward to take part in research, often through an advertisement, e.g. advert, newspaper, noticeboard, internet

Question 49

what are the strengths of volunteer sampling?

Answer 49

gives access to wide variety of ppts so makes the sample less biased and more representative

Question 50

what are the limitations of volunteer sampling?

Answer 50

- volunteer bias - e.g. ppts might be highly motivated to be helpful with extra time on their hands or need money offered by the application - not generalised well

Question 51

what is stratified sampling?

Answer 51

where groups of ppts are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population.

Question 52

how is stratified sampling carried out?

Answer 52

1) subgroups / strata are identified within a population, e.g. boys and girls. 2) determine the proportion of each strata in the target population 2) calculate the amount of ppts needed from each strata using a random sampling technique 3) number each member of the strata 4) use a random number generator (e.g. calculator) to select the ppts of the study 5) reassign numbers to names of ppts

Question 53

what are the strengths of stratified sampling?

Answer 53

more representative because it is proportional and randomly selected

Question 54

what are the limitations of stratified sampling?

Answer 54

- very time consuming to identify subgroups and then randomly select and contact them. - ppts could say no

Question 55

what is systematic sampling?

Answer 55

where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected. The numerical interval is applied consistently. Use a predetermined system to select ppts

Question 56

what are the strengths of systematic sampling?

Answer 56

ppts are selected using an objective system, so sample is unbiased

Question 57

what are the limitations of systematic sampling?

Answer 57

not truly unbiased unless you select a number using a random number generator to start with, and select every nth person from here.