Research methods

Question 1

What is a (laboratory/true) experiment? Quantitative

Answer 1

This setting allows the investigator to control the environment to determine if a change in the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable. To be confident that a cause and effect relationship exist, all other variables are controlled (as best as possible)

Question 2

Confounding variables

Answer 2

Variables that interfere with the action of the IV on the DV

Question 3

When are experiments a useful research method?

Answer 3

Useful when studying human brain processes when highly technical and accurate measurements can be take. They allow the researcher to test a hypothesis, support a theory and apply the theory to the real life

Question 4

Strengths of experiments as a research method

Answer 4

• shows CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP between IV and the DV.
• statistical testing allows for thorough data analysis.
  The precise nature of experiment allows for replication by other researchers which make the findings more reliable

Question 5

Limitations of experiments as a research method

Answer 5

• Strict control over the possible confounding variables can create an artificial environment -> this leads to a lack of ecological validity
• Participants can have expectations about what the nature and purpose of the study -> changing behavior. The way these expectations influence a participant’s response is known as demand characteristics.
• Experiments may lack INTERNAL VALIDITY as there may be other alternative explanations for the results

Question 6

What is a field experiment? Quantitative

Answer 6

These experiments are conducted in a natural setting.

Question 7

When are field experiments a useful research method

Answer 7

Used to study behavior in its natural setting. They been used extensively by social psychologists to investigate behavior

Question 8

Strengths of Field experiments

Answer 8

• High ecological validity because there is less artificiality

Question 9

Limitations of Field experiments

Answer 9

• The lack of control over variables -> this can lead to a loss of confidence in the results, this means it is less confident that there is a cause-and-effect relationship

Question 10

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 10

Is very similar to field experiments -> takes place under natural conditions. The IV is a naturally occuring variable.

Question 11

What is a quasi experiment?

Answer 11

These often take place under natural conditions. A quasi experiment CANNOT show a cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and DV -> only a correlation
- They do not randomly allocate their participants in a group, they are self-selecting
- The research does not always have full experimental control over the IV. Sometimes they manipulate an IV and measure the effect on people according to group
However at times it can be more similar to natural experiments -> in that the IV is naturally occurring, but the effect is measured on particular groups

Question 12

Application of natural and quasi experiments

Answer 12

They can be used to measure the effect of noise, light, location, poverty, and many other factors on human behavior. They are often used in educational and health phychology

Question 13

Strengths of natural and quasi-experiments

Answer 13

• Can be used in situations where it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable.
• There is less chance of experimenter bias or demand characteristics interfering with the results.
• Study allows the researcher to take advantage of naturally-occurring events to better understand their consequences

Question 14

Limitations of natural and quasi experiments

Answer 14

• the independent variable is not controlled by the researcher + there is no control over the allocation of participants to groups -> therefore replication is not possible + reliability is lower than with experiments
• In QUASI experiments, even if there is a manipulated IV, the groups are not equivalent and therefore, no cause-and-effect relationship can be established

Question 15

What are correlational studies? quantitative

Answer 15

They test the relationship (correlation) between two variables of interest. This correlation is expresses as a number (correlation coefficient) between -1 (negative correlation) and +1 (positive correlation), 0 = no correlation between the two variables. Researchers often gather information through observation of what people already to. Correlation does not necessarily mean causation

Question 16

Application of correlational studies

Answer 16

Are used to assess if a relationship exists between two variables)

Question 17

Strengths of correlational studies

Answer 17

• Studies are conducted quite easily and produce data that allows for a comparison between two variables.
• Allow researchers to study variables that cannot be manipulated (eg gender and age differences)

Question 18

Limitations of correlational studies

Answer 18

• They do NOT show cause-and-effect relationships. O

Question 19

What are naturalistic observations? Qualitative

Answer 19

Observations can be used to collect data as a stand-alone method but can also be used as additional data as part of an experiment or case study. Observers usually target a specific behavior or a set of behaviours (may use a tally chart to record data by making check marks in the chart)

Question 20

Combinations of observations

Answer 20

• Participant -> joins in the activity of the participants while observing them (can be overt + covert)
• Non-participant -> watches but does not join in with the activity (can be overt + covert)
• Naturalistic (usually non-participant) -> takes place where the target behavior normally occurs (can be overt + covert)
• Controlled (usually non-participant) -> researcher constructs and controls the situation (can be overt + covert)

Question 21

Applications of observations

Answer 21

Often used in the field of developmental psychology, especially behavior. They can also be used in social psychology

Question 22

Strengths of observations

Answer 22

• often give researchers ideas for further research
• allows the researcher to record and study behavior in some detail + often in natural circumstances -> this means high ecological validity
• Observations can be used as a part of a TRIANGULATION OF METHODS to confirm what has been said in interviews on the same topic
• By using several different observers -> reliability + validity of observations can be increased

Question 23

Limitations of observations

Answer 23

• DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS as participants may try to act according to their own ideas about what the researcher wants
• RESEARCHER BIAS when observers see what they want to see ( to avoid = use observers who do not know purpose of research)
• run the risk of being unethical

Question 24

What are case studies? Qualitative

Answer 24

These are examples of research into a particular individual, group of people or organisation. Case studies aim to provide a more detailed and holistic analysis of the behaviour of the individual or group under investigation -> as a result require lengthier periods of time to carry out.

Question 25

Application of case studies

Answer 25

Used extensively in medical, educational and workplace psychology

Question 26

Strengths of case studies

Answer 26

- can construct a full + detailed picture of an individual, a group or an organisation in a particular situation. - May also be longitudinal (long-term) -> therefore provide a developmental + historical perspective of the behavior being investigated - Generate rich data using a triangulation of methods, which can lead to higher validity - can also be valuable in generating new psychological theories + also providing evidence for existing psychological theories - Often have high ecological validity -> thus reflect more natural + real-life behaviour

Question 27

Limitations of case studies

Answer 27

- Often lack academic rigour when compared to controlled experiments where there are more specific guidelines for collecting and analysing data - Can also create an extensive amount of data and this can be unwieldy and time-consuming to analyse - Longitudinal case studies can run the risk of over-involvement by the researcher, leading to bias when researching and when analysing data + reporting results. - have limited generalisability as they frequently involve a small purposive sample and thus the results cannot be assumed to hold true for other populations - due to unique nature, they are difficult to replicate hence the reliability of the results is harder to establish

Question 28

What are interviews?

Answer 28

classified as a self-report method because they usually rely on verbally communicated data from participants. The way an interview is conducted can vary depending on how the researcher wants to obtain his/her data.

Question 29

what is a semi-structured interview?

Answer 29

Interview in which a list of pre-set questions is posed to the participants but the opportunity to ask further questions is built into the procedure

Question 30

What is an unstructured interview?

Answer 30

have a conversational interview where the conversation topics guide the questions that are asked

Question 31

What is a focus group interview?

Answer 31

is an additional option for gaining self-report data in a group situation when it is felt that one-to-one interviews may not be as productive in gathering information

Question 32

Strengths of unstructured interviews

Answer 32

- the flexibility with which questioning can be adapted to the situation - data gathered can be considered more valid because it can be considered more natural (the participant is given the opportunity to expand on their points and clarify -> hence researcher is less likely to misinterpret) - give an opportunity for any ambiguities of responses to be clarified

Question 33

Limitations of unstructured interviews

Answer 33

- Because they are open-ended they are therefore unique in content -> they are very hard to replicate to test reliability of the findings - a large amount of data is generated which ultimately is challenging to analyse in a simple way - the ability to steer conversations in certain direction is a skill -> substantial training of interviewers is required - method is time-consuming as only one participant can be tested at a time -> this therefore adds to the cost of a research study

Question 34

Strengths of semi-structured interviews

Answer 34

- provide an opportunity for any ambiguities in participant responses to be clarified + pursued - there is the opportunity for participants to open up and talk in depth about their opinions - Use of pre-arranged questions is useful because the possibility of researcher bias in the choice of questions is reduced

Question 35

Limitations of semi-structured interviews

Answer 35

- Because they are open-ended they are therefore unique in content -> they are very hard to replicate to test reliability of the findings - a large amount of data is generated which ultimately is challenging to analyse in a simple way - the ability to steer conversations in certain direction is a skill -> substantial training of interviewers is required - method is time-consuming as only one participant can be tested at a time -> this therefore adds to the cost of a research study

Question 36

Strengths of focus group interviews

Answer 36

- involve lengthy discursive procedures, the opportunity is more likely to arise for issues to be discussed that the researcher has not previously considered -> this could therefore provide a valuable opportunity to gather additional data relevant to their theory - there are ample opportunities for participants to open up and expand on their ideas - cheaper to conduct (large number of participants can contribute to the study at once instead of in individual interviews)

Question 37

Limitations of focus group interviews

Answer 37

- some participants may be in a position of vulnerability in a focus group testing situation if they feel they are being dominated by more extrovert + vocal members - this leads to further issue -> valuable information may be lost if some participants feel they cannot contribute - Group discussions are difficult to control -> study may therefore not fully achieve what it was set out to achieve

Question 38

Disadvantages of (all) interviews

Answer 38

rely on self-report data from participants -> are more vulnerable to certain biases that distort trueness of the data, they ultimately threaten the internal validity of a study - SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS is the consequence of participants wanting to present themselves in a positive light to the researcher -> can occur of participant feels embarrassed about admitting something - PARTICIPANT BIAS occurs when participants try to respond in a way that they think the interviewer desires - Bias can also occur in interviews as a consequence of INTERVIEWER EFFECTS where characteristics of the interviewer influence the participant to respond in ways that they would not normally respond

Question 39

What is a survey?

Answer 39

Is an alternative self-report technique that can be conducted on a large sample of people and can therefore gather more substantial amounts of data than both interviews + case studies. They can take a number of forms

Question 40

Application of surveys

Answer 40

they are primarily orientated towards gathering large amounts of quantitative data via questionnaires. Surveys are useful in following up on the results of qualitative interviews and case studies because the results can be assessed on a wider sample of participants

Question 41

Strengths of surveys

Answer 41

- the ease with which they can be completed because participants can complete them at their own leisure - useful in assessing hard to reach participants and there can be a quick turnaround in obtaining data - Interviewer bias can be minimized especially in postal + online surveys - Can increase sample size

Question 42

Limitations of surveys

Answer 42

- without face-to-face contact the motivation to complete surveys may be low and hence response rate will be low - potential for greater inaccuracy and bias in survey data as participants may rush completion - does not provide an opportunity for responses to be followed up by the researcher