Research Methods

Question 1

Questionnaires

Answer 1

• Questionnaires are a set of designed questions. They are used to quickly collect data from a large group of people.
• Distinguish between open-ended and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions allow participants to respond in their own words while closed-ended questions have a set of predefined responses.
• The Likert scale is commonly used in questionnaires to measure attitudes or feelings.
• Make sure the questions are not leading or bias, as this could manipulate the participant’s response.

Question 2

Interviews

Answer 2

• Interviews involve the researcher directly asking questions to the participant. They’re generally conducted in person, though phone or online interviews can also be valid.
• There are two main types of interviews: structured and unstructured. Structured interviews have a set list of questions, while unstructured interviews don’t follow a rigid structure and allow for more spontaneity.
• Remember the concept of interviewer bias, where the interviewer may subconsciously influence the participant’s responses.
• There’s also the semi-structured interview, which includes both predefined questions as well as room for following up on interesting responses.
• Probing questions are used to dig deeper into participant’s answers and gather more detailed responses.
• Bear in mind the issue of social desirability bias where individuals modify their responses to appear favourable or socially acceptable, especially in face-to-face interviews.

Question 3

Observations

Answer 3

• Naturalistic observation: This type of observation occurs in the individual’s natural setting, like home or workplace, without any interference.
• Controlled observation: This involves observing behaviour in a controlled environment where variables can be manipulated.
• Participant observation: In this methodology, the observer becomes part of the group being observed to understand their behaviours more closely.
• Non-participant observation: Here, the observer remains separate from the group being observed and doesn’t interact with them.

Question 4

Stages in an Observation

Answer 4

• Define the behaviour: Clearly define the behaviours that are to be observed. This increases reliability and validity.
  operationalising: Make the behaviour measurable and observable.
• Coding systems: Devise a coding system to record behaviours. This makes data easier to analyse.
• Pilot study: Conduct a trial run to ensure the coding system and observational procedures are effective.

Question 5

Characteristics of Observation

Answer 5

• Structured or unstructured: In structured observations, a specific behaviour is focused on. Unstructured observations record all behaviour.
• Overt or covert: In overt observations, participants are aware they are being observed. In covert observations, they are unaware.
• Inter-rater reliability: This is the level of agreement in the recording of observations by different researchers.

Question 6

Limitations of Observations

Answer 6

• Observer bias: Observers might interpret or notice things that align with their expectations.
• Reactivity: Participants might change their behaviour if they know they are being observed.
• Ethical considerations: Covert observations can raise issues of consent and deception.
• Time and resource heavy: Observations, particularly naturalistic ones, could take a lot of time and resources.

Question 7

Case Studies

Answer 7

• In-depth investigation of single person, group or event.
• Apply theoretical perspectives to understand individual circumstances.
• Provide unique insights of new or rare phenomenon.
• Be careful of generalisability due to specificity.

Question 8

Correlational Models

Answer 8

• Measure and observe how strongly two variables are related.
• Can be negative, positive or zero correlation.
• Be aware that correlation does not imply causation.

Question 9

Content Analysis

Answer 9

• Systematic and objective means of describing and quantifying phenomena.
• Enables examination of large amounts of data, such as verbal, written or visual communication.
• Allows qualitative coding of data to analyse patterns or themes.

Question 10

Longitudinal Studies

Answer 10

• Observations of same items over long period of time.
• Can observe changes or developments over time.

Question 11

Cross-Sectional Studies

Answer 11

• Analyses data from population, or representative subset, at specific point in time.
• Can contrast different population groups and their variables.

Question 12

Meta Analysis

Answer 12

• Statistical analysis that combines results of multiple scientific studies.
• Can resolve contradictions between studies, and increase statistical power.
• Results can be used to create evidence-based practises.