Research methods

Question 1

Describe the role of institutional review board (IRB) in terms of human subjects research

Answer 1

Institutional Review Board (IRB) is to protect human subjects involved in research.
* Protection of human subjects
* Ethical responsibility in research design and conduct
* Minimizing harm and bias when conducting studies involving people

Question 2

___ is the group of individuals to whom the study findings will be generalized.

Answer 2

The target population is the group of individuals to whom the study findings will be generalized.

Question 3

The Target Population is operationally defined using ____ criteria, which clarify who is and is not part of the population.

Answer 3

It is operationally defined using inclusion and exclusion criteria, which clarify who is and is not part of the population.

Question 4

___ variable is the variable that is manipulated in the study.

Answer 4

The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in the study.

Question 5

The ____ variable is the outcome of the study, or the variable in which you would expect to see a difference between groups based on the manipulation of the independent variable.

Answer 5

The dependent variable is the outcome of the study, or the variable in which you would expect to see a difference between groups based on the manipulation of the independent variable.

Question 6

In health sciences research, this is often described at the construct level as the treatment or intervention, with specific levels of the ___ variable defining the different groups.

Answer 6

In health sciences research, this is often described at the construct level as the treatment or intervention, with specific levels of the independent variable defining the different groups.

Question 7

____ must be operationalized by clearly describing how it is measured using a specific tool or instrument.

Answer 7

Dependent Variable must be operationalized by clearly describing how it is measured using a specific tool or instrument.

Question 8

____ is the degree to which the change in the dependent variable is caused by the manipulation of the independent variable, and not by other factors. It reflects whether we can rule out alternative explanations for the study findings.

Answer 8

Internal validity: is the degree to which the change in the dependent variable is caused by the manipulation of the independent variable, and not by other factors. It reflects whether we can rule out alternative explanations for the study findings.

Question 9

_ refers to how well a study shows that changes in the dependent variable were caused only by the independent variable and not something else.

Answer 9

Internal validity refers to how well a study shows that changes in the dependent variable were caused only by the independent variable and not something else.

Question 10

____ is the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to the larger target population and applied to real-world (clinical) practice.

Answer 10

External validity: is the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to the larger target population and applied to real-world (clinical) practice.

Question 11

Describe the realtionship between internal and external validity

Answer 11

There is an inverse relationship between internal and external validity:as internal validity increases, external validity decreases, and when studies are done in real-world clinical settings to improve external validity, internal validity often decreases due to less control.

Question 12

Identify the research design

____ provide the best opportunity to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Answer 12

Experimental designs provide the best opportunity to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Three types of experimental designs
* randomized controlled trial
* Quasi-experimental designs
* Single-subject designs (or n-of-1 designs)

Question 13

Identify the research design

Investigations missing a control group and/or random assignment

Answer 13

Quasi-experimental

Two primary types of quasi-experimental designs:
* Non-equivalent pretest-posttest design
* Single-group designs

Question 14

Identify the research design

Studies that describe the relationship between two variables.

Answer 14

Correlational

Question 15

Identify the research design

Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using data collected at one point in time.

Answer 15

Cross-sectional

Question 16

Identify the research design

Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using a retrospective approach.

Answer 16

Case-control

Question 17

Identify the research design

Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using a prospective approach

Answer 17

Cohort

Question 18

measurement scales (ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal)

• Used to label or categorize data
• Numbers have No value, order, or ranking
• Example: gender, diagnosis category

Answer 18

Nominal scale

Question 19

measurement scales (ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal)

Data are ranked or ordered, but intervals not equal
Example: severity ratings (mild, moderate, severe)

Answer 19

Ordinal scale

Question 20

measurement scales (ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal)

Data have equal intervals between values, but no true zero, can have negative numbers
Differences are meaningful, ratios are not
Example: temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit

Answer 20

Interval scale

Question 21

measurement scales (ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal)

Has equal intervals and a true zero point, no negative numbers
Allows meaningful ratios
Example: age, weight, time, number of errors.

Answer 21

Ratio scale

Question 22

Define term

If a measurement measures what it was intended to measure.

Answer 22

Validity: If a measurement measures what it was intended to measure.
* A measurement can be reliable without being valid, but validity cannot exist without reliability.

Question 23

If measurements are consistent and replicable. __ measurements minimize random error and produce the same results when repeated under the same conditions.

Answer 23

Reliability: If measurements are consistent and replicable. Reliable measurements minimize random error and produce the same results when repeated under the same conditions.

Question 24

When developing a good research question, you should ensure the question is what?

Answer 24

Specific
Answerable
Feasible

Question 25

One of your colleagues is preparing a grant proposal for a research study but is not sure how much money to request within the proposal. To estimate the cost of the research study, you suggest to your colleague that she first conduct a: Literature review Systematic review Pilot study Randomized clinical trial

Answer 25

Pilot study

Question 26

To ensure that a research question is answerable and specific, the question should identify which of the following? The confounding variables The target population The sample size The dependent variable The independent variable

Answer 26

* The target population * The dependent variable * The independent variable

Question 27

What are the three primary components of a study

Answer 27

Target population Independent variable Dependent Variable

Question 28

To operationalize the target population, the researcher will describe the study's what?

Answer 28

Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria

Question 29

You are conducting a study based on the following research question: In patients who suffer from migraines, will the use of acupuncture reduce pain significantly better than Ibuprofen? What is your independent variable: (Choose all that apply) Ibuprofen Treatment Acupuncture Pain

Answer 29

Treatment

Question 30

You are conducting a study based on the following research question: In patients who suffer from migraines, will the use of acupuncture reduce pain significantly better than Ibuprofen? What is your dependent variable: (Choose all that apply) Ibuprofen Treatment Acupuncture Pain

Answer 30

Pain

Question 31

You are conducting a study based on the following research question: In patients who suffer from migraines, will the use of acupuncture reduce pain significantly better than Ibuprofen? How would you operationalize the independent variable? (Choose all that apply) * Describe how migraines will be defined * Describe how pain will be measured * Describe the specific procedures and parameters of the Ibuprofen protocol * Describe the specific procedures and parameters of the acupuncture therapy

Answer 31

* Describe the specific procedures and parameters of the Ibuprofen protocol * Describe the specific procedures and parameters of the acupuncture therapy

Question 32

To operationalize the independent variable, the researcher must describe the levels of the independent variable in enough details so the reader can what?

Answer 32

To operationalize the independent variable, the researcher must describe the levels of the independent variable in enough details so the reader can: * **Clearly distinguish between the levels of the independent variable** * **Replicate each level of the independent variable in a separate study.**

Question 33

To operationalize the dependent variable, the researcher must what?

Answer 33

To operationalize the dependent variable, the researcher must describe **how it is being measured** (ie, what measurement tool will be used to measure the variable). In our example, we must identify how we intend on measuring pain.

Question 34

The degree to which the study establishes the relationship that it claims to establish is more formally referred to as: Measurement validity Study design validity Operationalization Confounding factors

Answer 34

Study design validity

Question 35

The three primary types of validity that make up the overall validity of a study design include Statistical validity Internal validity Independent validity External validity

Answer 35

Statistical validity Internal validity External validity

Question 36

What are the three main research designs

Answer 36

Experimental Quasi-experimental Exploratory

Question 37

Three types of experimental designs

Answer 37

True experimental Quasi-experimental designs Single-subject designs (or n-of-1 designs)

Question 38

The ____ is considered to be the gold standard (i.e., “the best”) of study designs due to its ability to protect against threats to internal validity.

Answer 38

The **randomized controlled trial (RCT)** is considered to be the gold standard (i.e., “the best”) of study designs due to its ability to protect against threats to internal validity.

Question 39

The RCT is considered the gold standard of study designs because of its two hallmark features:

Answer 39

* The use of a **control group** for purposes of comparison. * **Random assignment** of participants into groups. These two hallmark features aim to control extraneous variables, so that internal validity can be optimized.

Question 40

Types of Randomized Controlled Trials

Answer 40

1. **Parallel Arm Design** (Most Common) randomized into different treatment groups Each group receives only one treatment Between-group design → groups are compared to each other 2. **Randomized Block Trial** Participants are first grouped (blocked) based on an important variable (e.g., sex, age) Then randomized into treatment groups within each block Purpose: ensure groups are balanced on key factors 3. **Crossover Design** Participants receive multiple treatments in a specific order (sequence) Each participant gets all treatments Used when: order of treatments may affect outcomes (order effect) Participants act as their own control 4. **Randomized Block, Mixed Design** Combines blocking + crossover Participants are: Blocked first (e.g., by sex) Then randomized into treatment sequences Used when: There is a risk of group imbalance (prognostic factors) There is a risk of order effects

Question 41

Main Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs

Answer 41

1. **Non-Equivalent Pretest-Posttest Design** * Multiple groups (includes control group) * No random assignment * Common in clinical research Key Points: Groups may differ at baseline (non-equivalent) Higher risk of bias Still useful when RCT is not possible 2. **One-Group Designs** * Only ONE group (no control group) * No randomization * Independent variable = time (pre vs post)

Question 42

Types of One-Group Designs

Answer 42

A. **One-Group Pretest-Posttest** * Measure before and after intervention * Simple but low internal validity B. **One-Way Repeated Measures** * Multiple measurements AFTER intervention * Tracks how effects change over time C. **Time Series Design** (BEST one-group option) * Measurements BEFORE and AFTER intervention * Provides better understanding of baseline + trends Why it’s better: Helps control for maturation effects Shows natural pattern of the outcome over time

Question 43

Which of the following quasi-experimental study designs generally provides the highest level of internal validity

Answer 43

Two group pretest-posttest design

Question 44

Types of Exploratory Studies

Answer 44

* Correlational * Cross-sectional * Case-Control * Cohort

Question 45

There are two primary types of observational studies:

Answer 45

There are two primary types of observational studies: * Exploratory Studies * Descriptive Studies

Question 46

# Name study type Studies that describe the relationship between two variables.

Answer 46

**Correlational** Studies that describe the relationship between two variables.

Question 47

____ Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using data collected at one point in time.

Answer 47

**Cross-sectional** Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using data collected at one point in time.

Question 48

___ Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using a retrospective approach.

Answer 48

**Case-Control ** Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using a retrospective approach.

Question 49

__ Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using a prospective approach.

Answer 49

**Cohort** Studies that identify potential risk factors for a condition using a prospective approach.

Question 50

When describing a correlation, one should indicate: * The volume of the relationship * The direction of the relationship * The strength of the relationship * The number of variables * What caused the relationship

Answer 50

The direction of the relationship The strength of the relationship

Question 51

When choosing a control participant for your case-control study, you should consider: (select all) * How long you will track the participants * How you intend to prospectively study the participants * How many control participants to include per case participant * Which characteristics to match the control to the case

Answer 51

* How many control participants to include per case participant * Which characteristics to match the control to the case

Question 52

I measured my patients’ handgrip strength using a dynamometer. I record the measurements in kilograms then classify each patient as 1=weak, 2=normal, 3=strong. I have converted my data from a(n) _____________ scale to a(n) ______________ scale. Interval, ordinal Ratio, interval Interval, nominal Ratio, ordinal

Answer 52

Ratio, ordinal

Question 53

I measured my patients’ handgrip strength using a dynamometer. I record the measurements as 1=weak, 2=normal, 3=strong, then classify patients as 1=cleared for participation, 2=not cleared. I have converted my data from a(n) _____________ scale to a(n) ______________ scale. Interval, nominal Nominal, ordinal Ordinal, nominal Ratio, ordinal

Answer 53

Ordinal, nominal

Question 54

# Name scale type 1 = strongly disagree 2 = somewhat disagree 3 = neutral 4 = somewhat agree 5 = strongly agree

Answer 54

Ordinal Scale

Question 55

# Name scale type Range of motion Bone conduction thresholds

Answer 55

**Interval Scale** However, the interval scale is different from the ratio scale because it does NOT possess a "true zero". Put more simply, interval scales CAN have negative numbers.

Question 56

# Name scale type body weight, age, and blood pressure, Sound pressure level in decibels

Answer 56

**Ratio** The ratio scale is different from the interval scale because it possess a "true zero". Put more simply, ratio scales cannot have negative numbers because zero is the lowest value the scale can measure.

Question 57

# Name scale type 1 = American Indian or Alaska Native 2 = Asian 3 = Black or African American 4 = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 5 = White

Answer 57

**Nominal scales** are used to categorize or label variables.