Research Methods: Part 1 Understanding RM

Question 1

What are the 4 types of research methods?

Answer 1

• Experiments
• Observations
• Self Reports
• Correlations

Question 2

Name the different types of experiments.

Answer 2

• laboratory experiments
• field experiments
• quasi / natural experiments

Question 3

Name the different types of observations.

Answer 3

• naturalistic / controlled
• participant / non-participant
• structured / unstructured
• covert / overt

Question 4

Name the different types of self report techniques.

Answer 4

• questionnaires

- interviews

Question 5

Name the different types of correlational analysis’.

Answer 5

• positive correlations

- negative correlations

Question 6

Describe laboratory experiments

Answer 6

• run in carefully controlled conditions
• use a standardized procedure and allows experimenter full control of variables
• minimize extraneous variables
• cause and effect can be established (IV and DV)

Question 7

Describe field experiments

Answer 7

• IV under direct control of experimenter
• DV measured
• setting more like PP’s natural and usual environment
• take place outside lab

Question 8

Describe quasi / natural experiments

Answer 8

• researcher makes use of naturally occurring variables
• not a true experiment because scientists cannot manipulate IV
• often used when other lab methods are impractical or unethical

Question 9

What are used to allocate participants to the different levels of the IV in an experiment, and name all the different types of them.

Answer 9

Experimental designs:

• independent measures design
• repeated measures design
• matched participants design

Question 10

Describe independent measures design.

Answer 10

• two independent groups of participants, so data of each is independent of each other
• eliminates demand characteristics✅
• may be individual differences among participants so could be a confounding variable e.g. age, IQ, gender❌
• researchers try to minimize this by having a large sample and randomly allocating PP’s to conditions✅

Question 11

Describe repeated measures design.

Answer 11

• each PP takes part in both conditions of experiment
• minimizes individual differences as uses same people✅ and also needs less people✅
• means demand characteristics, so people may perform better or worse because they have practiced test before, and may start to guess aim of experiment so changes behavior❌
• solution is to counter balance order in which PP’s do the tasks

Question 12

Describe matched pairs design.

Answer 12

• similar to independent group, but with participants carefully matched on a number of variables e.g. Age / IQ/ gender (identical twins are ideal)
• can control individual differences and order effects✅
• matching is extremely difficult, so may still be individual differences among PP’s, even twins!❌

Question 13

What is operationalizing variables?

Answer 13

• important that variables are clearly defined so that cause and effect can be established and studies can be replicated
• so IV must be stated precisely and accurately
• DV needs to be clearly measured and quantifiable.

Question 14

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 14

• any features of the experimental setting that indicate to participants the aim of the study so may change or influence their behavior
• so can seriously affect findings❌

Question 15

What is a single blind procedure?

Answer 15

• experimental procedures in which only experimenter knows the aim of the experiment
• so ensures pp’s are unaware of level of IV in which they are performing
• reduces demand characteristics✅

Question 16

What is a double blind procedure?

Answer 16

• experimental procedures that ensures neither the researcher or pp’s are aware of condition of IV they are in or the aim of the experiment
• reduces demand characteristics✅
• reduces investigator / researcher effects✅

Question 17

What are investigator / researcher effects?

Answer 17

• the researcher may influence the participant and therefore the findings, by for e.g. their presence, beliefs, gender or behavior etc

Question 18

What are extraneous / confounding variables?

Answer 18

• can be anything other than the IV that may also influence the DV e.g. Temp when running
• if DV IS influenced by an extraneous variable in anyway it becomes a confounding variable
• compromise a study’s validity and reliability❌

Question 19

Assess reliability in all experiments.

Answer 19

• lab experiments generally reliable due to high level of control, standardized procedures and treating all pp’s in same way
• field experiments + quasi / natural experiments are less reliable as variables of pp’s normal environment are harder to control

Question 20

Assess validity in laboratory experiments.

Answer 20

• extraneous variables tightly controlled so researchers can be confident changes to IV cause changes to DV so = high validity
• sometimes way DV is measured is quite artificial so has a lack of mundane realism so = lack of validity
• demand characteristics may mean behavior changes, also artificial nature of lab experiments = lower ecological validity.

Question 21

Assess validity in field experiments.

Answer 21

• higher ecological validity than lab experiments as less artificial and pp’s more like to display more natural behavior
• demand characteristics also less likely in natural settings so increases validity
• extraneous variable are harder to control and DV more difficult to measure precisely so internal validity can be compromised though.

Question 22

Assess validity in quasi / natural experiments.

Answer 22

• have the least control and so less certainty that it’s changes to IV causing effects to DV, so lowering validity
• however behavior is more natural, so demand characteristics are less likely, increasing validity
• ecological validity = very high as behavior is occurring in its natural environment and observed differences are the representation of real life.

Question 23

Evaluate lab experiments.

Answer 23

✅- can confidently say IV causes change in DV with careful control, so has internal validity
✅- experiment is replicable and therefore reliable
✅- variables are easier to control under lab conditions
❌- more controlled, the less natural so lacked ecological validity
❌- sometimes impossible to use lab experiment
❌- demand characteristics may reduce confidence in results

Question 24

Evaluate field experiments.

Answer 24

✅- less artificial so mundane realism usually higher so higher internal validity
✅- avoids participant effects because they aren’t aware, so increases internal validity
❌- extraneous variables less easy to control as experiment is taking part in real world, so reduces internal validity
❌- may still be demand characteristics

Question 25

Evaluate quasi / natural experiments.

Answer 25

✅- allows research where IV can't be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons ✅- enables psychologist to study 'real' problems so increases mundane realism and validity ❌- cannot demonstrate casual relationships as IV is not directly manipulated ❌- many extraneous variables which is a threat to validity ❌- participants may be aware of beings studied and cause participant effects and demand characteristics

Question 26

Evaluate independent measures design.

Answer 26

✅- diff participants used in each level of IV so no possible order/practice effects ✅- demand characteristics reduced as participants see task only once ❌- individual diffs between pp's in diff levels of IV e.g. Age, gender, IQ etc can distort results making them less accurate and not as consistent, so diff to compare and conclude from ❌- more pp's needed, so may be less ethical or harder to find

Question 27

Evaluated repeated measures design.

Answer 27

✅- individual diffs unlikely to distort effect of IV as pp's do both levels ✅- uses fewer pp's so is good when pp's are hard to find or recruit, e.g when they know true nature of experiment less may volunteer ❌- order effects e.g. Practice fatigue and extraneous variables can affect results ❌- pp's see experimental task more than once, increasing demand characteristics I.e. May figure out they are being tested on something the didn't know about

Question 28

Evaluate matched participants design.

Answer 28

✅- pp's see task only once, reducing demand characteristics e.g. Second guessing true nature of experiment ✅- controls for individual diffs, e.g. Identical twins are ideal as have identical genes so likely to answer similarly if put in same condition, so should provide reliable results when split in diff conditions as almost like one person ✅- results cannot be distorted as there are no order effects e.g. Practice fatigue ❌- similarity between pairs is limited by matching process ❌- matching pp's is time consuming in order to be accurate, and difficult as necessary info required

Question 29

Describe naturalistic or controlled observations.

Answer 29

Naturalistic: people are observed in their everyday (natural) setting / environment. Controlled: some variables are controlled / manipulated by researcher, may be conducted in pp's normal environment or an artificial situations e.g. Lab

Question 30

Describe structured/systematic or unstructured observations.

Answer 30

Structured/systematic: has an aim to record and categorize behavior as accurately as possible, using predefined and decided categories, often using a coding system Unstructured: researcher records a wide range of all relevant behavior but has no particular system in which to do this.

Question 31

Describe Participant or Non-participant observations.

Answer 31

Participant: researcher is engaged with pp's as part of the social setting Non- participant: researcher is not engaging with participants and collects data by simply observing but not interacting too.

Question 32

Describe covert or overt observations.

Answer 32

Covert (non disclosed): pp's are totally unaware they are being watched. Overt (disclosed): research in which the role of the observer is know to pp's.

Question 33

What methods can be used to collect data in observations?

Answer 33

Event sampling | Time sampling

Question 34

Describe event sampling.

Answer 34

Uses a checklist of possible activities which are tallied as they occur.

Question 35

Describe time sampling.

Answer 35

3 types: - instantaneous scan sampling: only behavior during time interval is recorded - predominant activity sampling: recording behaviour performed most during time interval - one-zero sampling: recording whether behaviour occurred or not during interval.

Question 36

Assess reliability in observations.

Answer 36

- Clearly operationalized coding systems increase reliability - check inter rater reliability to increase reliability - coding systems improve reliability - using pilot studies to check behaviour categories increases reliability

Question 37

Assess validity in observations.

Answer 37

- covert observations increase validity as pp's don't change their behaviour - double blind observations reduce observer bias so increase validity - clearly operationalized coding systems increase validity

Question 38

Describe inter-rater reliability.

Answer 38

High if researchers observe and code behaviour in same way as each other. Will be low of they're not observing the same event or coding behaviour is vague and lacks validity.

Question 39

Describe designing observations using behavioural categories.

Answer 39

- involves identifying clearly defined behaviour which can be observed and recorded - may be place on a checklist and tallied

Question 40

Describe designing observations using coding frames.

Answer 40

- coding frames allow for more specific behaviors to be observed with in a behaviour category - codes and abbreviations used to record the severity of behaviors or a diff sub type within a category

Question 41

Evaluate time sampling.

Answer 41

✅- can give an indication of order in which events happen ✅- instantaneous scan sampling can be highly reliable ✅- one zero sampling can record occurrence of infrequent behaviors ❌- even with computers, diff to record as many different behaviors as can be recorded in event sampling ❌- predominant activity sampling only provides a relative estimate of time spent on each behavior, not an actual measure

Question 42

Evaluate event sampling.

Answer 42

✅- can record every occurrence of each behaviour to give a complete record ✅- records are easy to obtain and easy to analyze as they are just totals ❌- gives no indication of relative time spent on each behavioural category ❌- gives no indication of order in which events from each behavioural category occur

Question 43

Evaluate natural observation.

Answer 43

✅- participants not aware they are being observed so more likely to react in realistic and genuine ways ❌- extraneous variables threaten validity as can rarely be controlled

Question 44

Evaluate controlled observation.

Answer 44

✅- extraneous variables can be controlled so validity can be high compared to natural observations. ❌- participants are in an unfamiliar environment so may react differently to normal behaviour

Question 45

Evaluate structured / systematic observation.

Answer 45

✅- operational definitions can be developed in a pilot study before real data collection so improves validity ❌- predetermined behavioural categories may be limiting if new behaviors become apparent during the study

Question 46

Evaluate unstructured observation.

Answer 46

✅- without limitation of specific behavioural categories, any relevant behaviors can be recorded so data are richer and more complete ❌- by attempting to record everything, observers may ignore or miss important aspects

Question 47

Evaluate participant observation.

Answer 47

✅- being involved in social group can give observer insight into participants real emotions and motives ❌- can make observer subjective

Question 48

Evaluate non participant observation.

Answer 48

✅- equipment can be used for data recording to make detailed and accurate records if non participant observers are covert e.g. behind a screen ❌- if pp's are unaware they are being observed it raises ethical issues and questions about informed consent and right to withdraw

Question 49

Evaluate overt observation.

Answer 49

✅- as participants are aware of observers presence, the technique is more ethical than covert ❌- pp's are aware they are being observed so responses may not reflect what they would normally do

Question 50

Evaluate covert observation.

Answer 50

✅- pp's less likely to be aware they are being observed so more likely to react in a natural way ❌- if covert observers are also participant observers, may be difficult for them to record data accurately and unobtrusively without pp's finding out

Question 51

What are the two types of self report techniques?

Answer 51

- Interviews: 3 types of these | - Questionnaires

Question 52

Describe interviews and the different types of them.

Answer 52

- method in which participants reply verbally to questions asked by an interviewer - like a questionnaire but responses are oral - usually face-to-face - can be structured, semi structured or unstructured Structured: involves mainly closed q's in a fixed order, q's are normally scripted so are standardized. Semi structured: uses a fixed list of open and closed q's however interview can introduce additional questions and topics if required. Unstructured: generally begin with a standard q for all pp's but from there on q's depend on individuals responses, may have a list of topics to cover though.

Question 53

Describe questionnaires.

Answer 53

- pp's record their answers to a list of pre-written questions - can include open q's (where free responses are allowed), or closed (where a fixed no of responses are offered to choose from) - rating scales where respondents are asked to give their views on a number scale, or maybe likert scales

Question 54

Describe quantitative research.

Answer 54

- to do with quantity - focuses on collecting numbers - V controlled - analysis is objective

Question 55

Describe qualitative research.

Answer 55

- to do with quality - focuses on collecting opinions - is less controlled - analysis can be subjective

Question 56

Describe rating scales.

Answer 56

- a numerical scale on which a participant selects a number to indicate their choice - provides quantitative data - can give a numerical answer to a question, or just indicate the extent to which pp agrees with statement.

Question 57

Describe likert scales.

Answer 57

- type of q that measures attitudes using a statement - pp's respond to statement by choosing an option (typically from choices of 'strongly agree', 'agree', 'don't know', 'disagree', 'strongly disagree', to indicate how far they agree with the statement.

Question 58

Describe open questions.

Answer 58

- allows respondents to provide their ideas and views in detailed answers - generate qualitative data

Question 59

Describe closed questions.

Answer 59

- answers are listed and respondents choose their answer from these - no opportunity to expand on answers - generate quantitative data

Question 60

Describe a pilot study.

Answer 60

- small scale trial run of a method to identify any problems with procedure before they can occur in large scale experiment.

Question 61

Describe semantic differential scales.

Answer 61

- participants indicate their response views on a scale between two extremes (contrasting adjectives) e.g. Delicious, yummy, nice, okay, edible, disgusting, vomiting induced (Delicious - vomiting induced).

Question 62

Describe social desirability bias.

Answer 62

- respondents may not be honest when answering questions as afraid of being judged or not agreed with - may want to please researcher with answers so give answers they think researcher wants to hear - particularly true with sensitive topics e.g. Views on racism or disability or hygiene.

Question 63

Describe internal reliability, external reliability and inter-rater reliability.

Answer 63

Internal: extent to which something is consistent within itself e.g. All questions on an IQ test actually measure IQ. External: extent to which something is consistent overall on several occasions e.g. A questionnaire that produces same results over several occasions. Inter-rater reliability: when researchers observe and code same behaviour in same way.

Question 64

Assess reliability in self reports, and describe two tests that can be used to check it.

Answer 64

Test - retest: tests external reliability by testing same individual with same measures over a period of time, if results are same, reliability is high. Split half: tests internal reliability by splitting results of a test in two and testing how consistent they are, if both have similar scores, reliability is high.

Question 65

Assess INTERNAL validity in self reports, and describe the four types of it.

Answer 65

Internal validity: concerned with whether changes in DV are caused by only IV and not sources of error e.g. Extraneous variables: - face validity: whether a measure appears, on face value, to measure what it intends to measure. - criterion validity: extent to which test relates to or predicts some other variable - concurrent validity: how well current questionnaire matches with a previously well established one on same topic - construct validity: to what extent performance on psychological test measures the identified theory.

Question 66

Assess EXTERNAL validity in self reports, and the sub type of it.

Answer 66

External validity: concerned with whether or not researcher can generalize to situations beyond current context: - population validity: extent to which findings from one study can be generalized to whole population.

Question 67

Evaluate interviews.

Answer 67

✅- structured interview data easy to analyze as is quantitative ✅- semi structured or unstructured enable interviewer to gain specific and detailed info ❌- structured are limited by fixed questions ❌- investigator bias is a problem, e.g. Social desirability in answering questions.

Question 68

Evaluate questionnaires.

Answer 68

✅- data easy to analyze as usually quantitative ✅- relatively easy to administer as can be sent or emailed to participants, so time and cost efficient ❌- response bias e.g. Tending to always answer no or just ticking box on the left leads to invalid results ❌- limited and no flexibility like unstructured interviews

Question 69

Evaluate rating scales.

Answer 69

✅- easy to respond to so large amounts of data can be collected quickly ✅- produce quantitative data so easy to analyze ❌- cannot be used to measure complex variables that require more than one simple numerical response ❌- risk of response bias e.g. Consistently giving middle scale answers

Question 70

Evaluate likert scales.

Answer 70

✅- allow measurement of more complex attitudes than rating scales ❌- meaning of middle value is ambiguous, could indicate no opinion or undecided.

Question 71

Evaluate open questions.

Answer 71

✅- produce qualitative and detailed data, expressing pp's views fully so raising validity ❌- findings are individual so may be less generalizeable

Question 72

Evaluate closed questions.

Answer 72

✅- easy to respond to so collects more data quickly ✅- quantitative data produced so easy to analyze ❌- risk of response bias e.g. Saying yes consistently ❌- produce only quantitative data which lacks detail and meaning so lowers validity.

Question 73

What are the types of correlations?

Answer 73

Strong positive: increase in one accompanies increase in other Weak positive: " Strong negative: increase in one accompanies decrease in other Weak negative: "" Perfect positive: " Perfect negative: "" No correlation

Question 74

Describe scatter diagrams.

Answer 74

- graph used to display data from a correlational study | - each point on graph represents participants score for each of two measured variables.

Question 75

What is a casual relationship?

Answer 75

A relationship between two variables where a change in one is responsible for a change in the other.

Question 76

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 76

- measure of the strength of a correlation - usually expressed as a value between -1 and 1 - 0 - 1 means positive correlation - -1 - 0 means negative correlation - closer to 1 or -1, the stronger the correlation

Question 77

Assess reliability in correlations.

Answer 77

- correlations using scientific scales will be highly reliable - correlations in variables measured using self reports, observations or estimates will be less reliable

Question 78

Assess validity in correlations.

Answer 78

- more reliable correlation = more valid | - valid if both variables measure real phenomena in effective ways, so variables must be defined and measured clearly.

Question 79

Evaluate correlations.

Answer 79

✅- can be conducted in variables that can be measured but not manipulated ✅- can demonstrate presence or absence of a relationship ❌- can be used only with variables that can be measured on a scale ❌- a single correlational analysis cannot indicate whether a relationship is actually casual