Research Methods - The Scientific Process

Question 1

Aim

Answer 1

A precise statement about the purpose of the study and what it intends to find out. The aim should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve.

Question 2

Hypothesis

Answer 2

A specific, testable statement about the expected outcome of a study. Should also be operationalised.
First part of a hypothesis that needs addressing is whether or not the study predicts causation or correlation.

Question 3

Correlation

Answer 3

The researcher predicts a relationship between the two variables being investigated.

Question 4

Causation

Answer 4

The researcher predicts a difference in the DV because of manipulation of an IV.

Question 5

Significant differences

Answer 5

Differences in the DV resulting from manipulation of the IV are known as significant differences if it has been statistically shown using inferential statistics that the differences are highly unlikely to be due to chance.

Question 6

Null hypothesis

Answer 6

This states that the IV will have no effect on the DV

Question 7

Alternative hypothesis

Answer 7

This predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV.

Question 8

Alternative hypothesis falls in one of two categories

Answer 8

Non-directional hypothesis - This does NOT state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions
Directional hypothesis - This does state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions

Question 9

How to decide whether to use directional or non-directional

Answer 9

If there is previous research in the field, use directional as the research will enable us to predict which direction the results are likely to go in
If there is no previous research, use non-directional

Question 10

What to remember when writing a hypothesis

Answer 10

• Is it a test of causation or correlation?
• Is it a null, non-directional or directional hypothesis?
• Is it in the correct tense?
• Have all the variables been included?
• Have all the variables been operationalised?

Question 11

Pilot studies

Answer 11

Small scale investigations conducted before research.
They are useful because they can help to identify whether there needs to be any modifications in the design of the planned study. They also help determine whether it would be feasible and worthwhile to conduct a full-scale study.

Question 12

Sampling techniques

Answer 12

• Random
• Systematic
• Stratified
• Opportunity
• Volunteer

Question 13

Random sampling

Answer 13

• likely to be representative so results can be generalised to target population
• sometimes difficult to get full details of a target population from which to select a sample, and not all members of the target population who are selected will be willing and able to take part, making the sample unrepresentative

Question 14

Systematic sampling

Answer 14

• Far simpler than random sampling
• Process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait in the target population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sample can become unrepresentative.

Question 15

Stratified sampling

Answer 15

-All groups in a target population are included so the sample should be representative
- Can be very time consuming as the categories have to be identified and calculated

Question 16

Opportunity sampling

Answer 16

• Easiest and most practical
• High chance sample will not be representative, sometimes people may feel obliged to take part even when they don’t want to.

Question 17

Volunteer sampling

Answer 17

• Can be a useful way of finding specific people to take part in particular areas of research
• A certain type of person tends to volunteer for research and this means that there is a high chance that the sample will be unrepresentative

Question 18

Experimental designs

Answer 18

How the participants are assigned to different conditions.
3 main types :
- independent groups
- repeated measures
- matched pairs

Question 19

Order effects

Answer 19

When the sequence in which participants take part in conditions influences their performance or behaviour.

Question 20

Independent groups

Answer 20

Different participants are used in each condition. Participants are usually randomly allocated.

Question 21

Advantages of independent groups

Answer 21

• order effects will not occur as there are different participants in each condition
• the chance of demand characteristics is reduced as pps do only one condition each and have less chance to guess purpose of study
• the same task/materials can be used in both conditions as pps are always naïve to the task

Question 22

Disadvantages of independent groups

Answer 22

• more pps are needed for this experimental design
• there is always a chance that the different results between the two conditions are due to participant variables rather than manipulation of the IV

Question 23

Repeated measures

Answer 23

Each participant is tested in all condition of the experiment

Question 24

Advantages of repeated measures

Answer 24

• no participant variables
• half as many people are needed compared to an independent groups design

Question 25

Disadvantages of repeated measures

Answer 25

- order effects may affect the results. One way to avoid this is counterbalancing. - demand character are more likely to occur as pps are involved in the entire study - this design takes more time, especially if a time gap between different conditions is required

Question 26

Counterbalancing

Answer 26

When half the participants do condition A first and condition B second, and the other half do them in the opposite order. Does not eliminate order effects, but allows them to be distributed evenly across both conditions

Question 27

Matched pairs

Answer 27

Different pps are used in all of the conditions like with independent groups. Participants in the two groups are matched on characteristics important for that study. Identical twins are often used.

Question 28

Advantages of matched pairs

Answer 28

- less risk of order effects will not - less risk of demand characteristics - participant variables are unlikely as groups have been closely matched

Question 29

Disadvantages of matched pairs

Answer 29

-twice as many pps required than repeated measures - matching process is incredibly difficult - matching process is incredibly time consuming

Question 30

Participant variables

Answer 30

Characteristics of the pps which may affect the DV. Choosing an appropriate experimental design can help to overcome these extraneous variables.

Question 31

Environmental variables

Answer 31

Factors in the environment where the experiment is conducted that could affect the DV. Solution is standardisation - making sure that all conditions, materials and instructions are the same for all pps.

Question 32

Investigator effects

Answer 32

When the person collecting the data has knowledge of what the research aim is and that knowledge affects the data obtained. Observer bias is a type of investigator effect. Can be overcome by the double blind technique, where neither pps nor investigator know the hypothesis of the study or what condition they’re in. Standardised scripts should be written to ensure investigator acts in a similar way with all pps.

Question 33

Demand characteristics

Answer 33

Many features of research studies may enable pps to guess a study’s purpose and what is expected of them. This can lead to the participant: - trying to please the researcher by giving the ‘right’ results - trying to annoy the researcher by giving wrong results (screw-you effect) - acting unnaturally out of nervousness - acting unnaturally out of social desirability bias Can be overcome by single blind technique- pps don’t know what hypothesis or condition they’re in.

Question 34

Ethics - the rules

Answer 34

- informed consent - protection from harm - right to withdraw - confidentiality - avoid deception - debriefing

Question 35

Peer review process

Answer 35

Aims to retain the integrity of psychological research. Involves an independent scrutiny of a research report by other psychologists working in a similar field. These other psychologists check the research report before deciding whether or not it should be published in a psychological journal.

Question 36

What is considered in a peer review?

Answer 36

Work is considered in terms of its validity, reliability, significance and originality. There is an assessment of the appropriateness of the methodology and experimental designs used.

Question 37

Responses to a review

Answer 37

Reviewers can : - accept the research report as it is - accept the research report with revisions - suggest the author makes revisions to the research report and re-submits it - reject the research report without the possibility of re-submission

Question 38

Research proposals

Answer 38

Submitted to panel and assessed for merit before research takes place

Question 39

Final decision on research report

Answer 39

Editors of psychological journals make the final decision whether to accept or reject the report based on the reviewer’s comments/recommendations

Question 40

Peer review purposes

Answer 40

- to ensure quality and relevance of research and accuracy of findings. Reduces the chances of flawed/unscientific research being published. - to evaluate research proposals in order to determine whether or not to award research funding

Question 41

Advantages of peer review

Answer 41

- independent scrutiny increases the probability of errors being identified. Peers are more objective than authors or researchers. - double blind procedure can be used to researcher and reviewer don’t know who the other is - involves a specialist psychologist in the field judging work and they will have exceptional knowledge and expertise in order to make the best judgement

Question 42

Disadvantages of peer review

Answer 42

- it is not always possible to find an appropriate expert to review a proposal or report, therefore poor research might be positively reviewed because reviewer didn’t really understand it - journals tend to prefer positive results because editors want to increase the standing of their journal - peer review can be an unfair process where some reviewers have connections with certain universities and therefore favouritism or bias may occur towards researchers depending on their institution

Question 43

The economy

Answer 43

The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services and the supply of money

Question 44

Ways in which psychology affects the economy

Answer 44

Impact on healthcare service Impact on laws and policies Impact on government finances Impact on employment and productivity

Question 45

Social influence and the economy

Answer 45

Helps us understand how behaviour and attitudes can be changed Research has been used to encourage healthy behaviours Reduced pressure on NHS, increased productivity of workforce

Question 46

Memory and the economy

Answer 46

Cognitive interview has improved amount of accurate information collected from eyewitnesses Amount spent on wrongful arrests/imprisonment and wasted police time will be reduced

Question 47

Attachment and the economy

Answer 47

Recent research shows both parents are capable of providing necessary emotional support More fathers staying home contribute less to the economy but more mothers returning to work leads to more contribution Gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are regarded as more equal Paternity leave leads to government costs and might lead to lower productivity

Question 48

Psychopathology and the economy

Answer 48

May lead to improvements in psychological health which could lead to healthier people that take less time off work. Would reduce costs to the economy. May find better ways of managing people who have mental health issues, improve productivity. Important scientific research findings may encourage investment from overseas, boosting the economy. Providing effective treatments may be a financial burden to NHS. New, more effective therapies could be more expensive.