1
Q
Define ‘correlation’
Correlations
A
- Refers to a mathematical technique which measures the relationship between two continuous variables
1
Q
What is a case study?
Case studies and content analysis
A
- An in-dept investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, insitution or event.
2
Q
What are some features of case studies?
Case studies and content analysis
A
- Produce qualitative data
- psychologists may conduct a case history of the individual concerned using investigation methods
- longitudinal
3
Q
What is content analysis?
Case studies and content analysis
A
- A type of observational research in whic people are studied indirectly via communications they have produced
- Aim is to summarise and describe communication in a systematic way
E.g books, TV programmes, magazines, conversations
4
Q
Describe coding.
Case studies and content analysis
A
- coding sets of data into meaningful units so analysis is easier.
- may involve writing a tally every time a particular word or phrase appears in a situation
5
Q
What is thematic analysis?
Case studies and content analysis
A
- A form of content analysis but the outcome is qualitative
- Involves identification of themes
- researchers collect a new set of data to test validity of themes
6
Q
What is a theme?
Case studies and content analysis
A
- Any idea, explicit or implicit, that is recurrent
7
Q
What is nominal data?
Choosing a test
A
- Data is represented in the form of categories
- Discrete
8
Q
What is ordinal data?
Choosing a test
A
- Data is ordered in some way
- No equal intervals
- lacks precision as its based on subjective opinion
9
Q
What is interval data?
Choosing a test
A
- Based on numerical scales that include units of equal, defined size
- more detail is preserved
10
Q
When would you use a one/ two tailed test?
Significance
A
- One= if hypothesis was directional
- Two= non-directional hypothesis
11
Q
When might a significance level of 0.01 be used?
Significance
A
- In studies where there may be a human cost
- E.g drug trials
12
Q
What is a type 1 error?
Significance
A
- Accepting the alternative hypothesis when you should’ve accepted the null
13
Q
What is a type 2 error?
Significance
A
- When the null hypothesis is accepted when the alternative should’ve been
14
Q
How can we reduce type 1+2 errors?
A
Increase the power of your statistical test by increasing the sample size, the significance level
15
Q
Name a strength of case studies
A
- offer rich and detailed insights that may shed light on unusual behaviours
- contribute to our understanding of typical functioning for example HM- separate STM and LTM
- may generate hypotheses for future study and solitary
16
Q
Name a limitation of case studies
A
- generalisation
- unqiue circumstances
- small sample size is unlikely to be representative of the population
- info that makes it into final report may be subjective
- personal accounts are prone to memory decay or inaccuracy
17
Q
What is one strength of content analysis?
A
- circumnaivgates around ethical issues
- data that is used is secondary, already in public domain
- no problem gaining consent from author
- high in external validity
18
Q
What is a limitation of content analysis?
A
- people tend to be studied indirectly
- analysed outside of the context in which they happened
- may attribute opinions and motivations that were not intentional
- however researchers offer reflexivity where they reflect on issues within research, doesn’t remove them
19
Q
Why would we use mann-whitney?
A
- Unrelated
- Ordinal
- Indepedent groups
- looking for a difference between two groups
20
Q
Why would we use wilcoxon?
A
- looking for a difference before and after
- repeated measures
- ordinal
21
Q
Why would we use an unelated T-test?
A
- Interval data
- difference between two sets of data
- independent groups
22
Q
Why would we use a related t-test?
A
- repeated design
- difference before and after (same group)
- interval data
23
Q
When would we use spearman’s rho?
A
- correlation between two sets of values
- ordinal level
24
When would we use chi-squared?
- data is nominal
- test of difference or association
- independent groups
25
Define reliability
| Reliability
Refers to the consistency of the findings from an investigation/ test
26
Why is reliability important in psychology?
| Reliability
It is difficult to trust the findings of a test or procedure if it is inconsistent and produces different results every time
Ensures stability of results across different contexts
27
How is test-retest used?
| Reliability
- Administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions
- If it is reliable then the data will be the same
- Must be sufficient time between test and retest to ensure that the participant cannot recall previous answer
- Two sets of scores are then correlated
28
How do we use inter-observer in investigations?
| Reliability
- Watch the same event usually in teams of 2 but record data independently
- May do a pilot study to ensure that the behavioural categories are properly established
- operationalise behavioural cats
- ensure that they are applying behavioural cats in the same way
29
How is a correlation coefficient caluclated?
| Reliability
- Divide total no of agreements by total no of values
- Between 1 and -1
- +1 is a strong positive correlation
- -1 is a strong negative correlation
30
When is data reliable according to correlation coefficients?
| Reliability
At +0.8 or above
31
Why does low reliability occur in test retest?
| Reliability
- Certain variables are hard to measure
- Questions may be too vague
- P’s may not have answered truthfully
32
Why does low reliability occur in inter rater?
| Reliability
-Behavioural categories have not been operationalised
- Researcher bias
- Practical issues (obstructed views, dim lighting)
33
How is reliability improved in: questionnaires
| Reliability
- Some items which produce low reliability should be rewritten or deleted
- Replace some open questions with closed, fixed choice questions to reduce ambiguity
34
How is reliability improved in: interviews
| Reliability
- Use same interview each time
- Dont ask leading questions/ ambiguous questions
- Avoided by using structured interviews
35
How might reliability be improved in observations?
| Reliability
- Making sure that behavioural categories are properly operationalised
- Categories should not overlap
- If not, observers will have to make their own judgements and may end up with differing, inconsistent reports
36
Give one way in which reliability can be improved in experiments.
| Reliability
- Standardisation
37
What are key things we should consider when choosing a statistical test?
| Choosing a statistical test
1. Difference or correlation
2. Experimental design (independent, matched pairs, repeated measures)
3. Levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval)
38
What does it mean if something is of 5% significance?
| Probability and significance
- This means that the probability that the observed effect occurred when there is no effect in the population is equal to or less than 5%.
39
Define significance level
| Probability and significance
- The point at which the researcher can claim to have discovered a large enough difference or correlation wthin the data to claim an effect has been found
40
What are the 6 features of a scientific report?
| Reporting psychological investigations
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Method
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Referencing
41
Briefly describe what an abstract is
| Reporting psychological investigations
- 150-200 words in length that includes all the major elements in the research
42
What is an introduction?
| Reporting psychological investigations
- a literature review of the general area of research detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study
43
What is a method and what are some features?
| Reporting psychological investigations
- Sufficient detail so researchers can replicate
1. Design
2. Sample
3. Apparatus
4. procedure
5. ethics
44
What is validity?
| Validity
The extent to which an observed effect is accurate
45
What is internal validity?
| Validity
Refers to the factors inside the investigation such as if the researcher has measured what they intended to measure
(if the effects are due to the IV and not a third variable)
46
What are extraneous variables?
| Validity
Unwanted variables other than the IV that may affect the DV
47
Give some examples of extraneous variables
| Validity
- Temperature
- intelligence
- anxiety
- bias
- unconscious influences
- Demand characteristics
48
How can we control extraneous variables?
| Validity
1. Standardisation
2. Random allocation
3. change research design
4. training
5. instruction to reduce bias
49
What is a counfounding variable?
| Validity
Any variable that varies systematically with the IV and has affected the DV
50
What is external validity?
| Validity
The type of validity relates to factors outside or beyond the investigation. Also the extent of generalisation
51
What is ecological validity?
| Validity
The extent to which the findings can be generalised to other settings
52
What is temporal validity?
| Validity
The extent to which the findings can be generalised to other eras/ times.
53
What is ecological validity similar to?
| Validity
Mundane realism - the extent to which an experimental task mirrors task that you would do IRL
54
Name 2 ways of assessing validity.
| Validity
Face validity= if it measures what it is supposed to, eyeball it or pass to an expert to check
Concurrent validity= the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing measure.
55
How can validity be improved in experiments?
| Validity
- Control group (assess the effect of IV)
- standardise
- single/ double blind trials
56
Explain how validity can be improved in questionnaires and observations
| Validity
Q= a lie scale, assesses consistency of response, control effects of social desirability bias
O= high ecological validity due to minimal intervention, behavioural categories that are operationalised
psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (23)
# Cards
-
Exam techniques2
-
Attachment AO181
-
Attachment AO349
-
Memory AO157
-
Memory AO333
-
Approaches in psychology AO170
-
Approaches in psychology AO326
-
Psychopathology AO148
-
Psychopathology AO340
-
Social influence AO152
-
Social influence AO345
-
Research methods AO158
-
Research methods AO324
-
Research methods Y257
-
Gender AO171
-
Gender AO343
-
Forensics AO192
-
Forensics AO356
-
Schizophrenia AO152
-
Schizophrenia AO341
-
Biopsychology AO150
-
Biopsychology AO320
-
Issues and debates AO158
