Psychology > Research methods year 2 > Flashcards

Research methods year 2 Flashcards

(59 cards)

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1
Q

What is correlation?

A

Refers to a mathematical technique which measures the relationship or association between two continuous variables

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2
Q

What is the correlation coefficient? (5)

A
  • A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables
  • The closer the coefficient is to 1 (+1 or -1), the stronger the relationship between the co-variables
  • The closer to 0, the weaker the relationship is
  • Value of +1 represents a perfect positive correlation
  • Value of -1 represents a perfect negative correlation
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3
Q

Advantage of correlations

A

Relatively economical - unlike a lab study, there is no need for a controlled environment and can use secondary data. Less time-consuming than experiments

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4
Q

Disadvantage of correlations

A

Extraneous variables - there is no guarantee that additional influences will stay out of the correlational research study

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5
Q

Describe case studies (4)

A
  • A research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event
  • Tend to be longitudinal - take place over a long period of time. They may involve gathering data from family and friends of the individual as well as the person themselves
  • Often involve analysis of unusual individuals or events, e.g person with a rare disorder
  • Interviews, observations, questionnaire or a combination. The data collected is mainly qualitative
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6
Q

Advantage of case studies

A

They produce rich, detailed data. Preferred to the more ‘superficial’ forms of data that might be collected. Such detail is likely to increase the validity of the data collected

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7
Q

Disadvantage of case studies

A

Small samples - sample may be one individual/event with unique characteristics. This makes it difficult to make generalisations

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8
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A type of observational technique which involves studying people indirectly, through qualitative data. Qualitative data collected in a range of formats can be used, such as video or audio recordings, or written responses

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9
Q

Describe coding

A

Coding involves the researcher developing categories for the data to be classified. These categories provide a framework to convert qualitative material into quantitative data, which can then be used for further (statistical) analysis

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10
Q

Describe the process of content analysis (5)

A
  • Data is collected - the content that you’re looking at
  • Researcher reads through or examines the data, making themselves familiar with it
  • The researcher identifies coding units
  • The data is analysed by applying the coding units
  • A tally is made of the number of times that a coding unit appears
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11
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

A technique that helps identify themes throughout qualitative data. A theme is an idea or a notion, and can be explicit (such as stating that you feel depressed) or implicit (for example, using the metaphor of a black cloud for feeling depressed)

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12
Q

Describe the process of thematic analysis (4)

A
  • Familiarise yourself with the data
  • Generate main themes
  • Review themes and identify sub-themes and examples
  • Produce a report
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13
Q

Advantage of content analysis

A

Affordable - a relatively inexpensive methodology as researchers don’t have to travel like in the case of surveys and questionnaires. Most of the data is readily available, so researchers can use it

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14
Q

Disadvantages of content analysis

A

Time-consuming - it involves data collection and exhaustive data analysis

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15
Q

Advantage of thematic analysis

A

The researchers may identify unexpected themes, providing guidelines for future research.

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16
Q

Disadvantage of thematic analysis

A

Time-consuming process

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17
Q

What is reliability?

A

Refers to the ability of the study or test to produce consistent results if or when repeated at a later date

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18
Q

What are the ways of assessing reliability? (2)

A
  • Test-retest
  • Inter-observer
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19
Q

Describe test-retest (2)

A
  • The same test or questionnaire is given to the same person on two or more different occasions
  • The two sets of scores are correlated to see if they are similar, if the correlation shows a strong positive relationship then the test is considered to be reliable
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20
Q

Describe inter-observer reliability (4)

A
  • The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
  • Watch the same event and record it individually. They will then share results
  • The observations of the observers are correlated and if the results show a strong positive relationship then the test is considered to be reliable
  • The correlation coefficient should exceed +0.8 for reliability
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21
Q

Improving reliability - questionnaires (2)

A
  • A questionnaire that produces low test-retest reliability may need some items to be deselected or rewritten
  • The researcher may replace some open questions with closed, fixed-choice alternatives which may be less ambiguous
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22
Q

Improving reliability - interviews (2)

A

Use the same interviewer each time. If this is not possible, all interviewers must be trained (e.g. so they avoid questions that are leading or ambiguous

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23
Q

Improving reliability - observations (2)

A
  • Behavioural categories should be operationalised and measurable
  • Categories should not overlap (e.g. ‘hugging’ and ‘cuddling’), all possible behaviours should be included
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24
Q

Improving reliability - experiments

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A
  • Standardised procedures - instructions must be the same for all participants in a research study
25
What is validity?
The extent to which an observed effect is genuine
26
What is internal validity?
Refers to whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not some other factor
27
What is external validity?
The extent to which you can generalise the findings of a study to other situations, people, settings, and measures
28
What is ecological validity?
A type of external validity - the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations
29
What is temporal validity?
A type of external validity - the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras
30
What are the two ways of assessing validity?
* Face validity * Concurrent validity
31
What is face validity?
whether a test appears to measure what it's supposed to measure
32
What is concurrent validity?
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
33
Improving validity - experiments (2)
* control group - have greater confidence that it was the effect of the IV that has caused the change * Standardised procedures and single-blind and double-blind -minimise impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects
34
Improving validity - questionnaires (2)
* Guaranteeing that data will remain anonymous * Lie scale - assesses the consistency of a respondent's response and to control for the effects of social desirability bias
35
Improving validity - observations
Behavourial categories that are well-defined, thoroughly operationalised and not ambiguous or overlapping
36
Improving validity - qualitative research
Direct quotes from the participant in the research report. It can be further enhanced through triangulation - the use of a number of different sources for evidence
37
What are statistical tests used to determine?
Whether a difference or association/correlation found in a particular investigation is statistically significant (i.e. whether the result could have occurred by chance or there is a real effect)
38
What is the criteria for statistical tests? (3)
* Looking for a difference or a correlation/association? * Is experimental design related (repeated measures/matched pairs) or unrelated (independent groups)? - in the case of a difference * What is the level of measurement?
39
What is nominal data? (3)
* Categorical data * Each item can only appear in one category * For example, people naming their favourite football team
40
What is ordinal data? (2)
* Data collected on a numerical, ordered scale but intervals are variable, so that a score of 8 is not twice as much as a score of 4 * E.g. asking someone to rate how much they like psychology on a scale of 1 to 10
41
What is interval data? (2)
* Based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size * This includes counting observations in an observational study (8 tallies is twice as much as 4 tallies) or any 'public' unit of measurement (e.g. time, temperature)
42
If the statistical test is not significant, what is accepted?
* The null hypothesis * It states that there is 'no difference' or 'no correlation' between the conditions * The statistical test determines which hypothesis (null or alternative) is 'true' and thus we accept and reject
43
The usual level of significance is what number and what does this mean?
* 0.05 or 5% * There is a 5% chance that the results of a particular study sample occurred even if there was no real difference in the population (i.e. the null hypothesis is true)
44
What is a type I error?
The null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when the null hypothesis is 'true'. This is an optimistic error or false positive
45
What is a type II error?
The null hypothesis is accepted but the alternative hypothesis is 'true'. This is a pessimistic error or false negative
46
What makes each error (type I and type II) more likely?
Type I error - significance level is too lenient (too high, e.g. 0.1 or 10%) Type II error - significance level is too stringent (too low, e.g. 0.01 or 1%), as potentially significant values may be missed
47
What are the 6 sections of a psychological report?
* Abstract * Introduction * Method * Results * Discussion * Referencing
48
What is the abstract?
A short summary (about 150-200 words) that includes all the major elements: the aims and hypotheses, method/procedure, results and conclusions
49
What is the introduction? (2)
* Made up of the relevant theories and past studies/research relevant to the research question * The research review should follow a logical progression - beginning broadly and becoming more specific until the aims and hypotheses are presented
50
What is the method?
* Describes how the study was conducted. It should be clear and detailed enough for others to replicate - design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics (how they were dealt with)
51
What are the results? (3)
* A summary of key findings from the investigation * Descriptive statistics - tables, graphs and charts, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion * Inferential statistics - choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, level of significance and final outcome i.e. which hypothesis was rejected
52
What is the discussion? (4)
* Summary of findings in verbal, rather than statistical, form * Relationship of the results to previous research * Limitations of the study, plus suggestions of how these might be addressed in a future study * Wider real-world implications of the research
53
What are the references?
The full details of any journal articles, books and websites that you used in their report
54
Features of science - What is a paradigm?
Shared assumptions and methods within a scientific discipline e.g. there is a general consensus among scientists that the earth is round
55
Features of science - What is a paradigm shift?
They occur when there is a scientific revolution. A handful of researchers question the accepted paradigm when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore
56
Features of science - Describe theory construction (3)
* A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours * Testing a theory depends on being able to make clear and precise statements (hypotheses) in the basis of the theory * A hypothesis can then be tested using scientific methods to determine whether it will be supported or refuted
57
Features of science - What is falsifiability? (2)
* The principle that a theory cannot be considered a science unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue * Popper distinguished between theories which can be tested and falsified, and what he called ‘pseudosciences’ which can’t be falsified
58
Features of science - What is replicability?
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers
59
Features of science - objectivity and the empirical method
* Not letting own personal biases affect the results of studies * Empirical method refers to using observable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories
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