a conservative general who marched on Rome, seized power, and executed thousands of enemies through posted “proscription lists.” His reforms strengthened the Senate but traumatized Rome.
Sulla
A brilliant general who rose under Sulla, later won wars in Spain, crushed pirates, defeated Mithridates, and reorganized the East, gaining enormous prestige and power.
Who was Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great)?
A brilliant general who rose under Sulla, later won wars in Spain, crushed pirates, defeated Mithridates, and reorganized the East, gaining enormous prestige and power.
Who was Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great)?
After defeating Mithridates (66–62 BCE), he created new provinces (Syria, Bithynia, Cilicia, Pontus) and installed loyal client kings — effectively controlling the entire eastern Mediterranean.
What were Pompey’s major eastern reforms?
A massive slave uprising (73–71 BCE) led by Spartacus. Crassus defeated the main force, but Pompey killed 5,000 survivors, taking much of the credit.
What were the Spartacus revolts?
They restored the powers of the tribunes and returned jury service to the equestrian class, undoing Sulla’s restrictions and gaining popular support.
What did Pompey and Crassus restore as consuls in 70 BCE?
Granted imperium maius over the entire sea (67 BCE), he wiped out piracy in just 40 days — boosting his fame and influence.
How did Pompey defeat the pirates?
A bankrupt senator who plotted to overthrow the Republic in 63 BCE. His conspiracy was exposed by Cicero, who ordered his followers executed. Sallust portrays him as a symbol of Rome’s moral decay.
Who was Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline)?
Caesar argued for imprisonment without execution; Cato argued for death. The Senate sided with Cato, revealing divisions between legal restraint and political fear.
What was the key Senate debate during the Catiline conspiracy?
It exposed class tension, fear of revolution, and moral corruption in late Republican politics.
Why was the Catiline conspiracy significant?
A private political alliance (60 BCE) between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. It bypassed the Senate to share power — Caesar got Gaul, Pompey got land for veterans, and Crassus got tax relief for equites.
What was the First Triumvirate?
Julia (Caesar’s daughter, Pompey’s wife) died, Crassus was killed in Parthia, and rivalry grew between Pompey (Senate’s champion) and Caesar.
Why did the First Triumvirate break down?
From 58–50 BCE, Caesar conquered Gaul, amassing wealth, fame, and a loyal army — becoming too powerful for the Senate.
What did Caesar’s conquest of Gaul achieve?
Caesar crossed the Rubicon River (49 BCE), declaring “the die is cast.” It was a declaration of war against Pompey and the Senate.
What event started Caesar’s civil war?
Caesar defeated Pompey’s forces. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated.
What happened at the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BCE)?
Reorganized the calendar (Julian), expanded Senate, settled veterans, reduced grain dole recipients (from 320,000 to 150,000), granted citizenship to provinces, and initiated urban reforms.
What were Caesar’s reforms as dictator?
Many senators feared he was becoming a king. He was stabbed 23 times on the Ides of March (44 BCE) by Brutus, Cassius, and others.
Why was Caesar assassinated?
Power vacuum between Caesar’s supporters (Antony, Lepidus, Octavian) and his assassins (Brutus, Cassius).
What immediate chaos followed Caesar’s death?
Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus (43 BCE). A legal three-man dictatorship to “restore the Republic,” but in reality, to consolidate power.
Who formed the Second Triumvirate?
Mass executions of political enemies (including Cicero) to fund the armies and eliminate opposition — modeled after Sulla’s earlier proscriptions.
What were the proscriptions of the Second Triumvirate?
The Triumvirs defeated Brutus and Cassius, avenging Caesar’s assassination and ending the Republican cause.
What was the Battle of Philippi (42 BCE)?
His alliance and affair with Cleopatra made him appear weak, decadent, and un-Roman — a man ruled by a foreign queen.
How did Antony lose Roman support?
Octavian’s admiral Agrippa defeated Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet. Antony fled with Cleopatra and later committed suicide. This ended the civil wars.
What happened at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE)?
Consolidated power, declared the restoration of the Republic, and in 27 BCE was granted the title Augustus — marking the beginning of the Roman Empire.
What did Octavian do after Actium?
