A-Level PSYCH > RM 1 - All notes > Flashcards

RM 1 - All notes Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the 4 types of experiments

A
  • lab
  • field
  • natural
  • quasi
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2
Q

description of lab experiments

A
  • a research method where the experiment manipulates one or more IV
  • measures the effects on the dependent variable, under controlled conditions
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3
Q

strengths of lab experiments

A
  • tighter control of variables
  • easy to comment on cause and effect
  • easy to replicate as highly controlled
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4
Q

limitations of lab experiments

A
  • lacks ecological validity
  • demand characteristics might also become a problem
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5
Q

description of field experiment

A
  • a natural setting away from a lab
  • researcher has less control and can only control the environment to some extent
  • collects quantitative data
  • extraneous variables are included in the experiment
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6
Q

strengths of field experiments

A
  • higher ecological validity
  • participants less likely to show demand characteristics
  • high levels of mundane realism
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7
Q

limitations of field experiments

A
  • harder to randomly assign p’s so more likely to be a change
  • hard to control extraneous variables
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8
Q

description of natural experiments

A
  • the study of a naturally occurring situation as it unfolds in the real world so the researcher does not exert any influence
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9
Q

strengths of a natural experiment

A
  • high ecological validity
  • the IV cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons
  • little bias from sampling or demand characteristics
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10
Q

limitations of natural experiments

A
  • difficult to create cause and effect relationship due to lack of control
    difficult to replicate
  • many extraneous variables
  • p’s could become aware of the study causing demand characteristics
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11
Q

description of quasi experiment

A
  • have an IV based on an existing difference between people and no one has manipulated this variable
  • the variables just simply ‘exist’ e.g. being old or young
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12
Q

strengths of quasi experiemnts

A
  • carried out under a controlled condition
  • can be replicated
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13
Q

limitations of quasi experiments

A
  • cannot randomly allocate ps so often are confounding variables
  • cannot create a cause and effect relationship as it IV has not been deliberately changed
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14
Q

key point of lab experiments

A
  • highly controlled conditions
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15
Q

key point of field experiments

A
  • it takes in a real-world setting
  • the experimenter manipulates one or more IV to get a change in DV
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16
Q

key point of natural experiments

A
  • happens without the effect of a researcher
  • ecologically valid
  • many extraneous variables that cannot be controlled
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17
Q

key point of quasi experiments

A
  • variables just simply exist, IV based on an existing difference between people
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18
Q

what is a research aim

A
  • the stated intention of what questions are planned to be answered
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19
Q

what is an operational definition

A
  • a description of a variable given in terms of how it is actually measured
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20
Q

what is an experimental hypothesis

A
  • a statement which makes certain predictions about what results will be during the investigation
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21
Q

what is a null hypothesis

A
  • a prediction that nothing will happen
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22
Q

what is a one-tailed/directional hypothesis

A
  • when a hypothesis predicts the direction of the results
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23
Q

what is a two-tailed or non-directional hypothesis

A
  • a hypothesis that does not state a direction but states that there will be a difference between 2 sets of scores
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24
Q

what are extraneous variables

A
  • any variables, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if it is not controlled
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25
what an confounding variables
- if extraneous variables are failed to be controlled and they have impacted the results
26
what is experimental design
- how participants are allocated to different conditions in an experiment
27
what is the most common way to design an experiment
- an experimental group and a control group
28
what are the three types of experimental design
- independent groups - repeated measures - matched pairs
29
what are independent groups
- different people in each condition
30
+ves and -ves of independent groups
Pros: + demand characteristics of less of a problem + order effects are less of a problem Cons: - participant variables
31
what are repeated measures
- the same people in both conditions
32
+ves and -ves of repeated measures
pros: + participant variables are controlled Cons: - demand characteristics - order effects (can be controlled by counterbalancing)
33
what are matched pairs
- different but similar participants in each condition
34
+ves and -ves of matched pairs
Pros: + demand characteristics not a problem + order effects are not a problem + participant variables can be controlled better Cons: - no two participants are exactly the same so always be some participant variables
35
what are demand characteristics
- people change their opinions on what they think people want rather than what they actually think
36
what is the target population
- a subgroup of the general population
37
what is the population
- the large group of individuals who the researcher may be studying
38
what is the sample
- the group of people who take part in the research drawn from the target population and presumed to be representative of the population
39
what are order effects
- occurs when participants’ responses in the various conditions are affected by the order of conditions to which they were exposed
40
what is counterbalancing
- changing the order of the groups to reduce order effects
41
what happens if the sample is not representative of the population
- the data is not generalisable
42
why is representation difficult to achieve
- due to the diverse nature of individuals in a sample so is likely some bias
43
what is a random sample
- all participants have an equal chance of being selected
44
+s and -s of random sampling
Pros: + is free from research bias Cons: - time consuming - difficult to conduct - no guarantee it is representative
45
what is systematic sampling
- every nth member of the target population is selected and a sampling frame is produced
46
+s and -s of systematic sampling
Pros: + avoids researcher bias, as once the system has been established the research has no influence Cons: - difficult to achieve - time consuming - no guarantee it will representative
47
what is a stratified sample
- the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and workout the proportion needed for the sample to be representative
48
+s and -s of a stratified sample
Pros: + avoids researcher bias + designed to be representative of the population Cons: - stratification is not perfect
49
what is volunteer sampling
- ps put themselves forward to be part of a sample
50
+s and -s of volunteer sampling
Pros: + it is easy and requires minimal input, so is less time-consuming Cons: - volunteer bias
51
what is opportunity sampling
- people who are available and willing to take part
52
+s and -s of opportunity sampling
Pros: + it is quick and easy way of choosing ps Cons: - research bias - unrepresentative of the target population
53
most to least representative sampling type
STRAT --> VS --> SYS --> RS --> OS
54
most to least time consuming sampling type
RS --> STRAT --> SYS --> OS --> VS
55
most to least biased sampling type
OS --> VS --> START --> SYS --> RS
56
what are the types of observations
- lab - natural - overt - covert - participant - non-participant
57
what is a lab observation
- observation carried out in an artificial setting
58
+s and -s of lab observation
Pros: + can be replicated as researcher control variables Cons: - low ecological validity - potential outside influence from the researcher - possibility of demand characteristics
59
what is a natural observation
- observation carried out in the ps own environment (can be covert or overt)
60
+s and -s of natural observation
Pros: + high ecological validity + no outside inference Cons: - hard to replicate situation so cannot check reliability
61
what are covert and overt observation
- overt - ps know they are being watched - covert - ps do not know they are being watched
62
+s and -s of overt observations
Pros: + it is possible to inform ps in advance and obtain informed consent Cons: - demand characteristics
63
+s and -s of covert observation
Pros: + no problems of demand characteristics Cons: - less ethical as participants cannot give fully informed consent
64
what is participant observation
- where the researcher becomes involved in the group they are observing
65
+s and -s of participant observation
Pros: + researcher can obtain in depth data as they are in close proximity Cons: - the researcher presence might influence the ps behaviour
66
what is non-participant observation
- where there is no direct contact between the observer and those being observed
67
+s and -s of non-participant observations
Pros: + demand characteristics are less likely to occur Cons: - researcher might overlook behaviour due to lack of proximity
68
what are questionnaires
- a set of written questions designed to collect information
69
characteristics of questionnaires
- can discover what people think or feel - always pre-determined (structured) - can provide qualitative or quantitative data from open or closed questions
70
what is involved in a good question
- clarity (no double negatives or double barrelled questions) - bias - easy to analyse
71
what is involved in a good questionnaire
- filler questions - sequence of questions - sampling techniques - pilot study
72
what are filler questions
- irrelevant questions to distract to respondent from the main purpose of the questionnaire
73
what is a pilot study
- test the questions on a small group of people
74
strengths of a questionnaire
- can be done by lots of people quickly - open questions allow for elaboration leading to more research - reduces experimenter bias - no special training needed to hand them out
75
weaknesses of questionnaires
- sample could be biased as to who is filling it out - closed questions limit response (easier to summarise) - can be time-consuming to design - can only be filled out by those who can read and write
76
what is a structured interview
- has predetermined questions that do not change between each interviewee
77
what is an unstructured interview
- interviewer starts with general aims but subsequent questions are based on the bias of the answers they are given
78
what is a semi-structured interview
- combines a predetermined set of open questions with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further.
79
strengths of a structured interview
- easily repeated because questions are standardised - easy to compare answers as they are standardised - different people can be compared
80
weaknesses of structured interviews
- interviewer bias - Comparability is difficult if the interviewer behaves differently or different interviewer
81
strengths of an unstructured interview
- more detailed information obtained
82
weaknesses of an unstructured interview
- requires interviewer with more skill - questions lack objectivity - more expensive as need an experienced interviewer - interviewer bias
83
what is the effect of an interviewer
- the presence of an interviewer who is interested in the respondents answers may increase the amount of information provided
84
how do listening skills improve an interview
- do not interrupt too much and when they do speak use encouraging comments to provide more detail
85
what are the questioning skills in an unstructured interview
- avoid repeating questions - avoid probing too much - ask focused questions
86
what is the purpose of a case study
- to provide detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real-life event
87
what does a case study allow for
- data to be collected and analysed on something that psychologists have very little understanding of so can be starting points for more in depth research
88
strengths of case studies
- offer opportunity to unveil rich and detailed information about a unique situation - can be used in a situation which would be unethical to examine experimentally
89
weaknesses of case studies
- difficult to generalise any findings due to it being a small study - researcher subjectivity may cause a problem - lacks ecological validity
90
ethical issues that should be considered before the case study
- no informed consent - no confidentiality
91
what is a case study
- a research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event which records a rich log a human experience
92
economic implications relating to individuals and productivity from psychological research
- when people go to work more money is contributed through the economy - less time off work due to mental illness contribute more through taxation - individuals can return to work sooner - if individuals can manage their mental health better meaning work will be more productive - better management of people when they are at work
93
economic implications of psychological research for healthcare services
- if people are mentally healthier this means more NHS resources may be available for people with other conditions rather than all being focuses on mental conditions
94
broader economic implications of economic research
- the gender pay gap could be increased or decreased - attract investment from overseas into scientific research - changing laws such as maternity/paternity leave have an economic impact as they are government funded
95
what is a peer review
- an independent assessment process that takes place before a research study isp published
96
who is a peer review done by
- other psychologists in the same field of psychology and is conducted anonymously
97
what are the five key point of a peer review (PVASO)
P - provide recommendations about whether the research should be published or not V - check Validity of the research A - assess the appropriateness if the procedure and methodology S - judge the Significance of the research to a wider context O - asses the works Originality and that other relevant research is detailed
98
pneumonic to remember to 5 point of a peer review
- Peer Views Are So Overrated
99
strengths of a peer review
- anonymity allows researcher to be honest - ensures substandard research does not enter the mainstream - protects the reputation of the discipline - less opportunity for plagiarized work or duplication
100
limitations of a peer review
- anonymity may mean researchers just criticise other psychologists in a small field - publication bias - difficult to find a suitable peer - if the topic is niche, poor review may happen causing sub-standard research to be published
101
what is a positive correlation
- as one variable increases, the other increases
102
what is the ‘third-variable problem’
- you cannot find the correlation between all 3 variables
103
what are the types of data
qualitative quantitative primary secondary
104
+s and -s of quantitative data
+ simple to analyse + greater external validity + objective - no detail - summarised statistically
105
+s and -s of qualitative data
+ richer detail + not summarised statistically - difficult to analyse - limited external validity - subjective
106
+s and -s of primary data
+ the data is fit for a purpose and authentic to investigation + fits to what investigator wants - requires planning, prep and resources - expensive
107
+s and -s of secondary data
+ inexpensive + easy to access + does not require planning, prep or resources - not purpose fit for investigation - may not be what to investigator wants
108
what is content analysis
A form of observation technique that aims to take qualitative data into quantitative as it is easier to analyse- means you can create graphs, charts and tables
109
how does content analysis differ from other methods like observation
includes both observation and narrative and relies less on experimental elements normally associated with scientific research
110
what is a coding frame
a way to turn qualitative data into quantitative data by creating clear operational definitions for each category
111
how to conduct a content analysis
- define to research question or hypothesis - select the sample - develop a coding frame - analyse the content - check reliability and interpret results
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