igneous rocks
that are formed when molten (liquid) rock cools and solidifies. The word “igneous” comes from the Latin word ignis, meaning “fire
sedimentary rocks
formed from layers of small particles (sediment)—such as sand, mud, or organic material—that are transported by wind, water, or ice and deposited in layers, usually at the bottom of lakes or oceans. Over millions of years, these layers are buried, compacted, and cemented together
metamorphic rocks
formed when existing rocks are transformed by intense heat and pressure deep within the Earth’s crust. This process, called metamorphism, changes the mineral structure and texture of the rock, making it harder, often without melting it, creating rocks like slate or marble
The rock cycle
The rock cycle is a continuous geological process illustrating the transformation of rocks between three main types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—driven by plate tectonics, weathering, heat, and pressure. Any rock type can transform into another.
cooling
the essential process in the rock cycle that transforms molten rock (magma or lava) into igneous rock.
compaction
is a key process in the formation of sedimentary rocks. It refers to the stage where layers of deposited sediment (such as sand, mud, or pebbles) are squeezed together by the immense weight of overlying materials
sinkhole
depression or hole in the ground that forms when the surface layer collapses into an underground void or cavity
swallow hole
swallow hole (also known as a sinkhole) is a natural depression or hole in the ground, typically found in limestone areas, where streams or surface water disappear underground
gorges
is a narrow, steep-sided valley with bare, rocky walls, usually featuring a river flowing through it. It is a dramatic landform of erosion often found in the upper course of a river.
cave
is defined as a natural, hollowed-out underground chamber, passage, or cavity in a hill, cliff, or the earth’s surface. They are typically large enough for a person to enter.
cavern
is defined as a large, natural underground chamber or cave, typically found in limestone regions, that has been hollowed out by the action of groundwater and carbonation.
stalagmites
is a type of mineral deposit that rises upward from the floor of a cave. It is formed by the accumulation of minerals, most commonly calcium carbonate (calcite), deposited by water dripping from the ceiling
stalactites
are icicle-shaped mineral deposits that hang down from the ceiling of caves. They are a type of speleothem (cave formation) created by the slow deposition of minerals, usually calcium carbonate (calcite), from water dripping through the roof of a limestone cave
limestone column
a limestone column (also known as a pillar) is an underground feature found in limestone caves. It is formed when a stalactite (hanging from the ceiling) and a stalagmite (rising from the floor) grow towards each other and eventually meet
