1
Q
What is Metaphysics?
A
- The first (oldest) philosophy - Aristotle
- focuses on the nature of being and existence
2
Q
What are the three branches of Metaphysics?
A
- Ontology
- Universal Science or the First Principles
- Natural Theology or Divine Philosophy
3
Q
What is Ontology?
A
The study of existence and being, including mental and physical entities, and the study of change.
- “What exists and what does not exist?”
4
Q
What is Universal Science?
A
- Also called the “first principles.”
- the study of logic and reasoning
- “How does an object become an object?”
5
Q
What is existence?
A
- defined as a state of continued being.
6
Q
What does “Existence exists” mean?
A
The famous axiom to come out of metaphysics; it simply states that there is something instead of nothing.
If something must exist, that must mean that existence has to exist.
7
Q
Existence is necessary and required for there to be any type of ___________. And, to exist, it must have a ___________.
A
Knowledge
Identity
8
Q
What is consciousness?
A
- the faculty to perceive what exists.
- requires that there be something outside of itself; dependent upon the existence of something external.
9
Q
The world is made up of things, known as _____ or _____. These particulars share certain qualities or attributes in common with one another, and philosophers refer to these commonalities as _______ or ______.
A
Objects or Particulars
Universals or Properties
10
Q
What is the problem of universals?
A
encountered when attempting to explain whether properties can exist in more than one place simultaneously.
11
Q
Explanation for the problem of universals:
A
- Platonic realism - the universals exist, but outside of space and time
- Moderate forms of realism - universals exist within space and time
- Nominalism - universals do not exist independently, exist as names alone.
12
Q
What is Identity?
A
- makes an entity recognizable
- specific characteristics that allow one to define and distinguish them from other entities
- important concepts: change and causality
13
Q
The identity of an entity is the ____ of its parts.
A
sum
- identity - based on the entity’s building blocks and their interactions
14
Q
These identities are _____; these objects are simply being affected by _____ and are _____ based on their identities.
A
not unstable
causality
changing
15
Q
To alter an identity, a ____ (caused by an action) needs to occur.
A
Change
16
Q
What does the law of causality states?
A
All causes have specific effects that are dependent on the original identities of the entities.
17
Q
Theories about the issue of change:
A
- Perdurantism - objects have temporal parts and at every moment, objects only partly exist
- Endurantism - objects are the same and whole throughout every moment of history
- Mereological Essentialism - the object is not able to persist if any of its parts change because parts are essential to the object.
18
Q
What does the Mereological Theory of Identity say about the Ship of Theseus paradox?
A
- The identity of something is dependent upon the identity of that thing’s component parts.
- The ship that Theseus left with and the ship that is assembled by the scavenger from its old parts are the same.
19
Q
What does the Spatiotemporal continuity say about the Ship of Theseus paradox?
A
- An object can have a continuous path in space-time, as long as the change is gradual and the shape and form are preserved.
- The ship must maintain a continuous presence, with changes to its physical properties happening only gradually.
20
Q
What is Epistemology?
A
- the study of knowledge; dealing with the philosophical problems of knowledge
- focuses on the nature and extent of knowledge
- gave birth to the philosophy of language and science
21
Q
Nature of knowledge
A
One must first comprehend what knowledge is and how to then distinguish between knowing something and not knowing something.
22
Q
Extent of knowledge
A
attempt to understand how much we can and do know and how knowledge is acquired
23
Q
What is the Philosophy of Science?
A
The study of how scientific knowledge is acquired, justified, and limited, which is to be disproved or falsified.
Knowledge changes through the model of paradigm shift.
24
Q
What is the Philosophy of Language?
A
- studies the meaning of meaning
- emphasizes the importance of having clear definitions first to have better discussions, focusing on the topics that we already have words for.
25
What is knowledge?
- organized concepts in our heads that we know
- factive, one can only know something if that is the case.
26
What are the different types of knowledge?
- procedural knowledge
- acquaintance knowledge
- propositional knowledge
27
Procedural Knowledge
- "know-how" or competence knowledge
- the knowledge a person has through performing some kind of task or procedure
- It is difficult to put into forms in thought
- "Saber" - knows how to do things
28
Acquaintance Knowledge
- Familiarity
- the knowledge attained through experience with something.
- only sense-data because another object can never be truly known by a person.
- "Conocer" - know because of familiarity
29
Propositional Knowledge
- knowledge that can be reduced to different propositions (declarative statements with positive or negative truth value)
- "knowledge-that" where statements are described through the use of "that-clauses."
- claiming that there is something you know (Structure: subject knows that x)
30
Propositional knowledge can also be broken
up into _____ knowledge (knowledge prior to any experience) and _____ knowledge (knowledge after an experience).
apriori, aposteriori
31
Requirements for knowledge (since Plato): Tripartite Theory of Knowledge
Belief, Truth, Justification, or Justified True Belief
The person has to believe what you are saying (Belief), and that statement must be true (Truth) and justified in believing so (Justification)
32
Belief & Types of Belief
- Knowledge exists solely in the mind and is a mental state; a type of belief.
Occurrent Belief - a belief that is actively entertained by an individual
Non-occurrent belief - not being entertained and in the background.
33
The majority of an individual’s knowledge is _____ knowledge, meaning that in a person’s mind, only a small portion of knowledge is active.
non-occurent
34
Truth
- not all beliefs are knowledge; it needs to match up with the real world.
In the process of acquiring knowledge, people attempt to increase the amount of true beliefs they have
35
Justification
- For there to be knowledge, there must be justification of these true beliefs.
- must have sound reasoning and solid evidence to support its claims.
36
What is fallibility?
The philosophical idea is that no belief can ever truly be supported and justified.
Even if an individual’s true belief is false, it is still possible to have knowledge
37
Approaches in how justification is construed
Internalism - justification depends entirely on internal factors (mental states) since beliefs are mental processes.
Externalism - there must be at least some external factors that help determine whether or not a belief is justified.
- Reliabilism - the source of beliefs should be taken into consideration; justified if a reliable source
38
Theories on the origin of knowledge
Empiricism - all knowledge comes from sensory experience; a posteriori knowledge; inductive reasoning provided by the senses.
Rationalism - humans must have innate concepts and then use deductive reasoning; a priori knowledge
39
Types of Empiricism
Classical Empiricism - tabula rasa; as one begins to experience the world that information is gathered, and knowledge is formed.
Radical Empiricism - William James; all of one's knowledge comes from the senses
Moderate Empiricism - allows for cases where knowledge is not grounded in the senses for truth that does not require investigation, but any significant forms of knowledge are still solely gained from experience
40
Types of Rationalism
Intuition or Deduction Thesis - some propositions are known as a result of intuition alone, while other propositions can be known by being deduced from an intuited proposition.
Innate Knowledge Thesis - knowledge does not come from intuition or deduction; rather, it is just part of our very nature to have it.
Innate Concept Thesis - knowledge can be deduced from innate concepts.
41
What is the Gettier Problem
- example: cow in the field
- by Edmund Gettier
- challenges to the traditional philosophical approach to defining knowledge as a true belief that is justified.
42
Tripartite Theory of Knowledge
Belief: A person can’t know something to be true without first believing that it is true.
Truth: If a person knows something, then it must be true. If a belief is false, then it cannot be true, and therefore, it cannot be known.
Justification: It is not enough to simply believe something to be true. There must be a justification through sufficient evidence.
43
Problems in Gettier's Problems
While justification is present, the justification is fallible because there is the possibility that the belief could end up being false.
Each problem features luck. In all of the Gettier problems, the belief becomes justified; however, it is due to the presence of pure luck
44
There is a need of an ____ instead of three conditions of knowledge
extra-condition
45
The four main theories to fix the tripartite theory of knowledge
1. No False Belief Condition - a belief cannot be based on a belief that is false.
2. Causal Connection Condition - causal connection between knowledge and belief.
3. Conclusive Reasons Condition - A reason for a belief must exist that would not exist if the belief itself were false.
4. Defeasibility Condition - as long as there is no evidence pointing to the contrary, a belief is known.
46
Proposed fourth element or extra-condition is...
Warrant - functioning properly; often externalist, a concept that may include factors outside a person's conscious awareness.
47
What is Axiology
- a branch of philosophy that deals with axioms; the study of value
- True (Logic), Good (Ethics), Beautiful (Aesthetics) Value
48
Ethics vs Morality
Ethics deals with the internal character of individuals; Greek, ethos; philosophical questions like how a person should act, what people think is right, how an individual uses and practices their moral knowledge, and the very meaning of “right.”
Morality deals with mores, and social deeds people do; Roman, mores; moral codes and the practice of specific acts
49
Ethics
- Moral Philosophy
- understanding what makes one’s conduct right and what makes it wrong.
50
Subfields of Ethics:
- Normative Ethics
- Meta-ethics
- Descriptive Ethics
- Applied Ethics
51
Normative Ethics
- understand ethical action by creating a set of rules (or norms) that govern action and human conduct. focuses on the discussion of what is right and wrong.
52
Types of normative ethics
Consequentialism - Morality of an action is based on the results or outcome of the action. (Hedonism, utilitarianism, egoism)
Deontology - one should consider the rights of others and one’s own duty when making decisions. (Be rational)
Virtue Ethics - focuses on virtues (the behaviors that allow one to have a good life or a state of well-being)
53
Meta-ethics
- examines ethical judgments and specifically tries to understand statements, attitudes, judgments, and ethical properties.
- It examines the nature and meaning of the issue.
54
Types of meta-ethical views
Moral realism holds that objective moral truths exist independently of human beliefs (cognitivist)
Moral anti-realism denies this, claiming moral truths are subjective, based on emotion, or that moral judgments are always false (subjectivist)
55
Descriptive Ethics
compares ethical systems and compares one’s rules of conduct that explain an actual action with the ethics that one says he believes in. "What is"
used by anthropologists, historians, and psychologists
56
Applied Ethics
brings ethical theory into real-life situations or fields and is often used in creating public policy.
Includes medical ethics, legal ethics, and media ethics.
57
The Trolley Problem
-1967, Philippa Foot
- expanded by Judith Jarvis Thomson
58
The trolley problem is a perfect critique of ____.
Consequentialism
59
What is the doctrine of double effect?
- introduced by Thomas Aquinas
An action can be morally permissible even when one of the consequences is morally bad.
4 Conditions
- There must be an intention for the good consequence.
- The action itself must be morally neutral or good, and never morally wrong.
- The good consequence must be the direct result of the action, and not the result of the bad consequence.
- The bad consequence can never outweigh the good consequence
60
What are the characteristics of a thought experiment?
- is not real
- designed to ask you what you would do regarding certain things, revealing aspects of your belief system
- already has a bias, designed to say something already, and its main message is that our actions have intended and double effect.
61
Logic
- has a strong relationship with mathematics
- deals with "correct thinking"; evaluating the truth and the things that we think about
- very strict and precise application
62
Two types of Logic
Syllogistic Logic
Propositional Logic
63
Syllogistic Logic
- earlier system
- Syllogisms - evaluating the truth and validity of the entire system that has 3 statements (premises and conclusion)
- The conclusion follows the premises (universally accepted as valid argument)
- 3 statements, 3 subjects
64
Logic - It is not the content that matters, it is the ____. ____ relies on the ____.
Form
Validity
65
What is validity?
There is no other truth except for that (no other elective) (The conclusion is aligned with the premises)
66
What is soundness?
Rely on the truth of the premises.
An important factor aside from validity.
- some things don't make sense (not sound) but are still valid
67
Propositional Logic
- propositions - declarative statements with a truth value
- most popular in teaching logic
- rules of thought: identity (proposition is always equal to itself), excluded middle (either true or false, no in between), non-contradiction (cannot be true and false at the same time)
68
Connectors in propositional logic
- Negation (not) - inverts the truth value of the statement
- Conjuction (and) - joins the two propositions together. true if both statements are true; false even if only one statement is false.
- Disjunction (or) - separates the two propositions. Even if one is false, the overall is still considered true.
- Conditional (if then) - if you get a true premise and a false conclusion = False (If false yung premise and true yung conclusion, magiging true pa rin siya)
- Biconditional (if and only if) - If both are true = true; if both are false = true
69
Logic is a study of a _____ language; known for its formality and mechanistic understading of propositions.
Formal
70
Ways of viewing logic:
Logical Atomism - the belief that all sentences can be reduced to their logical atoms.
Logical Positivism - if cannot be broken down into logical atoms, it is nonsense to talk about.
71
Ordinary Language
- opposite to the purely logical thinking
- Formal logic fails to capture the entirety of the things that can be said about our world.
- Intuitive; communicates with efficiency, prone to making shortcuts, and does not need longer sentences.
- Natural language has its own logic
72
Informal Logic
- the study of reasoning and argumentation in everyday language, focusing on how to evaluate arguments from real-life situations
73
What are fallacies?
Errors in thinking or flawed reasoning
74
Examples of Informal Fallacies (11)
Ad hominen, Tu quoque, Ad misericordiam; Red herring; Moving the goalpost; Ad vericundiam; Ad baculum; Slippery Slope; Strawman Fallacy; Cherrypicking; Fallacy fallacy
75
Personal attack; attacking the person making the argument, not the argument itself, to discredit the argument by discrediting the person making the argument
Ad hominen
76
"Eh ikaw nga"; to discredit an opponent's position by accusing them of hypocrisy or inconsistency with their own argument
Tu quoque
77
Appeal to emotion; not really putting forward an argument in the situation, but instead appealing to the emotional state of people to be favored (evoking pity and sympathy)
Ad misericordiam
78
distraction; being distracted by all the other things put forward that are irrelevant to the argument.
Red herring
79
changing the main idea being discussed when you are winning an argument; trying to get to a common ground of understanding, when you are nearing proving your point, they change
the topic
Moving the goalpost
80
appeal to authority; the strength of argument comes from the person's position; supposed to believe this person because this person is
an expert, but their argument is not correct (valid authority but incorrect argument)
Ad vericundiam
81
appeal to force; more violent
agree with an argument to avoid impending
punishment (agree with me or else)
Ad baculum
82
make a small thing seems larger by seeming to imply that the small thing will inevitably lead to the larger event.
Slippery Slope
83
misrepresentation; present a version of an argument that is inaccurate so that it is easier to attack (create distorted version)
Strawman Fallacy
84
when you see and trying to critique a general problem and focus on a specific examples that defeats the entire generalization
Cherry picking
85
The incorrect assumption that a conclusion is false simply because the argument used to support it is flawed or contains a logical fallacy.
Fallacy fallacy
86
What is Aesthetics?
Studies the nature of beauty, art, and taste
-our ideas of beauty are reflective of general philosophy
87
Aesthetics: Plato vs. Aristotle
Plato - Forms; copies of copies; art is something we should not be doing because it is merely a copy of the perfect Forms; Art only mimics life.
Aristotle - learn virtue by appreciating arts, impacting our emotions. Learn emotions through art, preparing us for life scenarios by dealing with our emotions. Life mimics art
88
What is the philosophy of beauty?
- Visual: a matter of appreciation, no reaction or relationship to the thing you perceive
- It is a rational appreciation of something (objective), which can be analyzed
89
Philosophy of taste
- Preferences: subjective view on something; empiricist perspective
- the process of making the judgment
90
1800s- intellectuals wanted beauty as something to be appreciated and involve ____ thought. But tast is highlighting ____
rational
preference
91
Preferences can be boiled down to certain elements of something, which leads to ____
Rationalization
92
Sublime vs. Beautiful
Sublime - exaltation of happiness when you experience something that has unexplainable beauty; one's feelings toward nature; Struck in awe.
Beautiful - originates in social feelings (romantic and emotional attachment), to be comforted through love or desire; you can articulate exactly why that thing is beautiful
93
Philosophy of art
- what art is, what should be judged, and what the value of art is.
94
Definitions of Art
- Plato - 18th century: Representation
- Romanticism: Expression
- 20th century: Abstraction and appreciating the form
- Later decade: art should not have a tight definition; De-definition of Art by Morris Weitz
95
Values of Art
Extrinsic Value - appreciate art as a way to express a recognized moral good and to educate the emotions
Intrinsic Value - believe that art is valuable in and of itself.
PHLO 1
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Decks in class (4)
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