1
Q
What is a monomer?
A
- Small, single molecule which can be joined together to form a polymer
2
Q
What is a polymer?
A
- Large molecule made of monomers joined together
3
Q
What is a condensation reaction?
A
- Joins 2 molecules together
- Eliminates a water molecule
- Forms a chemical bond e.g. glycosidic bond
4
Q
What is a hydrolysis reaction?
A
- Separates 2 molecules
- Breaks a chemical bond using water
5
Q
Names some monomers and their polymers.
A
- Nucleotide - Polynucleotide
- Monosaccharide - Polysaccharide
- Amino acid - Polypeptide (protein)
6
Q
What is a monosaccharide?
A
- Monomers from which larger carbohydrates are made
- E.g. glucose, fructose and galactose
7
Q
How do you draw an Alpha glucose?
A
- The OH group is below the plane of the ring
8
Q
How do you draw a Beta glucose?
A
- The OH group is above the plane of the ring
9
Q
How are disaccharides formed and what molecules are required to make each?
A
- Formed by the condensation of 2 monosaccharides
- Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
- Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
- Glucose + Galactose = Lactose
10
Q
What is the structure and function of glycogen?
A
- Energy store in animal cells
- Polysaccharide of a-glucose with C1-C4 and C1-C6 glycosidic bonds so it is branched
11
Q
What is the structure of glycogen suited to its function?
A
- Branched; rapidly hydrolysed to release glucose for respiration to provide energy
- Large polysaccharide molecule, can’t leave
- Insoluble in water, water potential of cell not affected
12
Q
What is the structure and function of starch?
A
- Energy store in cells
- Polysaccharide of a-glucose, unbranched or branched
13
Q
What is the structure related to its function?
A
- Helical, compact for storage in cells
- Large polysaccharide, can’t leave cell
- Insoluble in water, WP not affected
14
Q
What is the function of cellulose?
A
- Provides strength and structural support to plant cell walls
15
Q
What is the structure related to its function of cellulose?
A
- Every other beta glucose molecule is inverted in a long straight unbranched chain
- Many hydrogen bonds link parallel strands to form microfibrils
- H bonds are strong in high numbers
- Provides strength and structural support to plant cells
16
Q
What are examples of reducing and non-reducing sugars?
A
- Reducing sugar : Monosaccharides, some disaccharides (maltose/ lactose)
- Some disaccharides - sucrose
17
Q
What is the Benedict’s test for reducing sugars?
A
- Add Benedicts reagent to sample and heat in a boiling water bath
- Positive = green/yellow/orange/red percipitate
18
Q
What is the Benedict’s test for non-reducing sugars?
A
- Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid
- Heat in a boiling water bath
- Neutralise with sodium hydrogen carbonate
- Add Benedict’s reagent and heat again
- Non-reducing sugar present = green/yellow/ orange/ red percipitate
19
Q
How do you determine glucose concentration?
A
- Produce a dilution series of glucose solutions of known concentrations
- Perform a Benedict’s test on each sample
- Using a colorimeter, measure the absorbance of each sample and plot a calibration curve
- Repeat with unknown sample (find absorbance) and use graph to determine glucose concentration
20
Q
What is the Iodine test for starch?
A
- Add iodine to solution and shake/stir
- Blue-black colour = starch present
21
Q
What are the 2 groups of lipids?
A
- Triglycerides and Phospholipids
22
Q
How are triglycerides formed?
A
- Formed by the condensation of 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids. Forms ester bonds
22
Q
How are triglycerides formed?
A
- Formed by the condensation of 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids. Forms ester bonds
23
Q
What are the properties of triglycerides related to its function?
A
- High ratio of C-H bonds to C atoms in hydrocarbon tail so release more energy than the same mass of carbohydrates
- Insoluble in water so no effect on WP
24
How are Phospholipids formed?
* One of the fatty acids of a triglyceride is substituted by a phosphate- containing group
25
What are the properties of phospholipids related to its function?
* Phospholipids form bilayers in cell membranes allowing diffusion of non-polar
* Phosphate heads are polar/ hydrophilic so are attracted to water orient to aqueous environment
* Fatty acid tails are non-polar/ hydrophobic so are repelled by water - orient to interior of membrane
26
What is the emulsion test for lipids?
* Add ethanol and shake
* Add water
* Positive: milky/ white emulsion
27
What is the general structure of an amino acid
28
What is the primary structure of a protein?
* Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
29
What is the secondary structure of a protein?
* Hydrogen bonding between amino acids between carbonyl O and amino H of another
* Causes polypeptide chain to coil into alpha helix or fold into a beta pleated sheet
30
What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
* Overall 3D structure of a polypeptide held together held by interactions between amino acid side chains
* Ionic bonds/ disulfide chains/ hydrogen bonds
31
What is the Quaternary structure of a protein?
* Some proteins are made of 2+ polypeptide chains
* Held together by more hydrogen, ionic and disulfide chain bonds
32
What is the test for proteins?
* Add biuret solution: sodium hydroxide + Copper sulfate
* Protein present = purple/ lilac colour
* Detects peptide bonds
33
What do enzymes do?
* Lowers the activation energy of the reaction it catalyses - speed up the rate of reaction
* Enzymes are biological catalysts
34
What is the lock and key model?
* Active site is a fixed shape/ doesn't change shape
* It is complementary to 1 substrate
* After a successful collision, an enzyme-substrate complex forms leading to a reaction
35
What is the Induced Fit Model?
* Before reaction, enzyme active site not completely complementary to substrate
* Active site shape changes as substrate binds and enzyme-substrate complex forms
* This stresses/ distorts bonds in substrate leading to a reaction
36
What are the Factors that affect the rate of enzyme-controlled reaction?
* Enzyme Concentration
* Substrate Concentration
* Temperature
* pH
37
How does increasing enzyme concentration affect the rate and when does it plateau?
* Increases the rate when enzyme conc is the LF
* More enzymes - more available active sites
* More successful E-S collisions and E-S complexes
* At a certain point Substrate conc = LF
38
How does increasing the substrate concentration affect the rate of a reaction and when does this plateau?
* Rate of reaction increases when substrate concentration is the LF
* More successful collisions and E-S complexes
* Enzyme conc = LF
39
How does increasing temperature affect the rate of reaction?
* Rate of reaction increases
* Increase in Kinetic Energy
* More successful E-S complexes
40
What happens when increasing temperature above optimum?
* Rate of reaction falls
* Enzymes denature, tertiary structure and active site changes shape
* Fewer E-S collisions and E-S complexes
41
What happens to the rate of reaction with pH above and below the optimum?
* Enzymes denature, tertiary structure and active site changes shape
* Complementary substrate can no longer binds
* Fewer E-S complexes
42
How do competitive inhibitors decrease the rate of reaction?
* Similar shape to substrate
* Competes for/ blocks / binds to active site so substrates can't
* Fewer E-S complexes
* Increasing substrate conc reduces the effect of inhibitors
43
How do non-competitive inhibitors decrease the rate of reaction?
* Binds to site away from the active site
* Enzyme tertiary structure/ active site changes shape so substrate can't bind
* Fewer E-S complexes
* Increasing substrate concentration has no effect
Biology Paper 1 Bio notes
flashcards
Decks in class (9)
# Cards
-
Section 1: Biological Molecules44
-
Section 3: Gas Exchange + Digestion and Absorption35
-
Section 3: Mass Transport57
-
Section 4: DNA, genes, chromosomes and protein synthesis23
-
Section 2: Immunology21
-
Section 4 : Genetic Diversity32
-
Section 4: Biodiversity18
-
Section 2: Cell structure29
-
Section 1: Nucleic Acids22
